56
Schröder A, Persson L, De Roos AM (2005) Direct experimental evidence for alternative stable
states: a review. Oikos 110:3–19
Schumm SA (1969) River metamorphosis. J Hydraul Div ASCE 95:255–273
Schumm SA (1973) Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of drainage systems. In:
Morisawa M (ed) Fluvial geomorphology. SUNY Binghamton, New York, pp 299–310
Schumm SA (1979) Geomorphic thresholds: the concept and its applications. Trans Inst Br Geogr
4:485–515
Schumm SA, Hadley RF (1957) Arroyos and the semiarid cycle of erosion. Am J Sci 255:161–174
Scott ML, Skagen SK, Merigliano MF (2003) Relating geomorphic change and grazing to avian
communities in riparian forests. Conserv Biol 17:284–296
Shields FD, Simon A, Steffen LJ (2000) Reservoir effects on downstream river channel migration.
Environ Conserv 27:54–66
Sklar LS, Dietrich WE (2004) A mechanistic model for river incision into bedrock by saltating bed
load. Water Resour Res 40:W06301. doi:10.1029/2003WR002496
Small MJ, Doyle MW, Fuller RL et al (2008) Hydrologic versus geomorphic limitation on CPOM
storage in stream ecosystems. Freshw Biol 53:1618–1631
Stanford JA, Ward JV (1988) The hyporheic habitat of river ecosystems. Nature 335:64–66
Stock JD (2013) Waters divided: a history of alluvial fan research and a view of its future. In: Wohl
E (ed) Treatise on fluvial geomorphology. Treatise on geomorphology, vol 9. Academic, San
Diego, pp 413–458
Suding KN, Gross KL, Houseman GR (2004) Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 19:46–53
Thorp JH, Thoms MC, Delong MD (2006) The riverine ecosystem synthesis: biocomplexity in
river networks across space and time. River Res Appl 22:123–147
Tockner K, Malard F, Ward JV (2000) An extension of the flood-pulse concept. Hydrol Process
14:2861–2883
Tonina D, Buffington JM (2009) Hyporheic exchange in mountain rivers I: mechanics and environmental effects. Geogr Compass 3:1063–1086
Trimble SW (2013) Historical agriculture and soil erosion in the Upper Mississippi Valley Hill
Country. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 242
Trimble SW, Mendel AC (1995) The cow as a geomorphic agent—a critical review. Geomorphology
13:233–253
Triska FJ (1984) Role of wood debris in modifying channel geomorphology and riparian areas
of a large lowland river under pristine conditions: a historical case study. Verh Int Ver Limnol
22:1876–1892
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (2012) 2012 Nationwide permits, conditions, district
engineer’s decision, further information, and definitions. http://www.usace.army.mil/Portals/2/
docs/civilworks/nwp/2012/NWP2012_corrections_21-sep-2012.pdf
Van Breemen N, Boyer EW, Goodale CL, Jaworski NA, Paustian K, Seitzinger SP, Lajtha K et al
(2002) Where did all the nitrogen go? Fate of nitrogen inputs to large watersheds in the northeastern U.S.A. Biogeochemistry 57/58:267–293
Vannote RL, Minshall GW, Cummins KW, Sedell JR, Cushing CE (1980) The river continuum
concept. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:130–137
Wainwright J, Turnbull L, Ibrahim TG, Lexartza-Artza I, Thomas SF, Brazier RE (2011) Linking
environmental regimes, space, and time: interpretations of structural and functional connectivity. Geomorphology 126:387–404
Ward JV (1989) The four-dimensional nature of lotic ecosystems. J N Am Benthol Soc 8:2–8
Ward JV (1992) A mountain river. In: Calow P, Petts GE (eds) The rivers handbook. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, pp 493–510
Ward JV, Stanford JA (1983) The serial discontinuity concept of lotic ecosystems. In: Fontaine
TD, Bartell SM (eds) Dynamics of lotic ecosystems. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, pp 29–42
Ward JV, Stanford JA (1995) The serial discontinuity concept: extending the model to floodplain
rivers. Regul Rivers Res Manag 10:159–168
2 Rivers as Ecosystems
Schröder A, Persson L, De Roos AM (2005) Direct experimental evidence for alternative stable
states: a review. Oikos 110:3–19
Schumm SA (1969) River metamorphosis. J Hydraul Div ASCE 95:255–273
Schumm SA (1973) Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of drainage systems. In:
Morisawa M (ed) Fluvial geomorphology. SUNY Binghamton, New York, pp 299–310
Schumm SA (1979) Geomorphic thresholds: the concept and its applications. Trans Inst Br Geogr
4:485–515
Schumm SA, Hadley RF (1957) Arroyos and the semiarid cycle of erosion. Am J Sci 255:161–174
Scott ML, Skagen SK, Merigliano MF (2003) Relating geomorphic change and grazing to avian
communities in riparian forests. Conserv Biol 17:284–296
Shields FD, Simon A, Steffen LJ (2000) Reservoir effects on downstream river channel migration.
Environ Conserv 27:54–66
Sklar LS, Dietrich WE (2004) A mechanistic model for river incision into bedrock by saltating bed
load. Water Resour Res 40:W06301. doi:10.1029/2003WR002496
Small MJ, Doyle MW, Fuller RL et al (2008) Hydrologic versus geomorphic limitation on CPOM
storage in stream ecosystems. Freshw Biol 53:1618–1631
Stanford JA, Ward JV (1988) The hyporheic habitat of river ecosystems. Nature 335:64–66
Stock JD (2013) Waters divided: a history of alluvial fan research and a view of its future. In: Wohl
E (ed) Treatise on fluvial geomorphology. Treatise on geomorphology, vol 9. Academic, San
Diego, pp 413–458
Suding KN, Gross KL, Houseman GR (2004) Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 19:46–53
Thorp JH, Thoms MC, Delong MD (2006) The riverine ecosystem synthesis: biocomplexity in
river networks across space and time. River Res Appl 22:123–147
Tockner K, Malard F, Ward JV (2000) An extension of the flood-pulse concept. Hydrol Process
14:2861–2883
Tonina D, Buffington JM (2009) Hyporheic exchange in mountain rivers I: mechanics and environmental effects. Geogr Compass 3:1063–1086
Trimble SW (2013) Historical agriculture and soil erosion in the Upper Mississippi Valley Hill
Country. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 242
Trimble SW, Mendel AC (1995) The cow as a geomorphic agent—a critical review. Geomorphology
13:233–253
Triska FJ (1984) Role of wood debris in modifying channel geomorphology and riparian areas
of a large lowland river under pristine conditions: a historical case study. Verh Int Ver Limnol
22:1876–1892
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (2012) 2012 Nationwide permits, conditions, district
engineer’s decision, further information, and definitions. http://www.usace.army.mil/Portals/2/
docs/civilworks/nwp/2012/NWP2012_corrections_21-sep-2012.pdf
Van Breemen N, Boyer EW, Goodale CL, Jaworski NA, Paustian K, Seitzinger SP, Lajtha K et al
(2002) Where did all the nitrogen go? Fate of nitrogen inputs to large watersheds in the northeastern U.S.A. Biogeochemistry 57/58:267–293
Vannote RL, Minshall GW, Cummins KW, Sedell JR, Cushing CE (1980) The river continuum
concept. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:130–137
Wainwright J, Turnbull L, Ibrahim TG, Lexartza-Artza I, Thomas SF, Brazier RE (2011) Linking
environmental regimes, space, and time: interpretations of structural and functional connectivity. Geomorphology 126:387–404
Ward JV (1989) The four-dimensional nature of lotic ecosystems. J N Am Benthol Soc 8:2–8
Ward JV (1992) A mountain river. In: Calow P, Petts GE (eds) The rivers handbook. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, pp 493–510
Ward JV, Stanford JA (1983) The serial discontinuity concept of lotic ecosystems. In: Fontaine
TD, Bartell SM (eds) Dynamics of lotic ecosystems. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, pp 29–42
Ward JV, Stanford JA (1995) The serial discontinuity concept: extending the model to floodplain
rivers. Regul Rivers Res Manag 10:159–168
2 Rivers as Ecosystems