Northia pristis (Deshayes in Lamarck, 1844) and Polinicies sp. in the Pacific and
Cassis tuberosa (Linneaus, 1758) in the Caribbean which have been reported to
attack, and bore into the tests of mellitid sand dollars (McClintock and Marion
1993; Sonnenholzner and Lawrence 1998). Attacks always occurred on the aboral
surface, and in the majority of cases centred over one or more petals. When the
gastropods managed to bore through the test into the coelom (Fig. 4.13b), death of
the sand dollar resulted. However, the presence of multiple scars of varying size
indicates that such attacks are not always lethal. Following such attacks bacteria
infected the majority of wounds which became dark green or black as a result of
necrosis (Fig. 4.13c).
In many instances where the coelom had not been penetrated, the bacteria in the
wound spread and caused the death of the sand dollar. Such pathogenic bacteria
may be similar to that reported in Meoma ventricosa in Curaçao by Nagelkerken
et al. (1999). In this instance a tetradotoxin-producing bacterial strain of the genus
Pseudoalteromonas was found in the sediment and was ingested by M. ventricosa.
The density of such strains of bacteria may have increased as a result of the
outflow of polluted water from the harbour.
In Bocas del Toro, only 2.8 % of the shallow habitats in the archipelago are
within the protected area (Guzman and Guevara 2002a). Since 1997, coastal
environments in Bocas del Toro have changed, as infrastructure such as roads,
marinas, and hotels have developed. Destruction of these seagrass habitats is
resulting in an increase in runoff and sedimentation in the coastal zone (Guzman
and Guevara 1998). This has already started to affect the coral reefs (Guzman and
Guevara 2001), and could potentially modify the function of the remaining coastal
ecosystems.
The illegal harvesting of sea cucumbers continues to put pressure on the
remaining populations particularly on the Caribbean coast of Panama, along the
coastal perimeter of Laguna de Chiriquí, from the point of Península Valiente
through the southern section of Isla Popa and Cayo Agua (Cruz 2000; Guzman and
Guevara 2002a).
4.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
Echinoderm diversity in Panama is reported to be greater on both the Caribbean
(Alvarado et al. 2008) and eastern Pacific coasts (Alvarado et al. 2010) than in
other Central American countries. The length of coastline, with high levels of
coastal heterogeneity may explain high levels of species richness. However, this
diversity relative to other Central American countries is probably more of a
reflection of the research effort that has taken place in Panama. The first phase of
echinoderm research in Panama began in the late 1800’s with the collections made
by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross in the eastern Pacific. This period
of exploration resulted in many new species being described. The second phase of
echinoderm research in Panama in the 1930’s and 1940’s continued to explore the
136
S. E. Coppard and J. J. Alvarado
Cassis tuberosa (Linneaus, 1758) in the Caribbean which have been reported to
attack, and bore into the tests of mellitid sand dollars (McClintock and Marion
1993; Sonnenholzner and Lawrence 1998). Attacks always occurred on the aboral
surface, and in the majority of cases centred over one or more petals. When the
gastropods managed to bore through the test into the coelom (Fig. 4.13b), death of
the sand dollar resulted. However, the presence of multiple scars of varying size
indicates that such attacks are not always lethal. Following such attacks bacteria
infected the majority of wounds which became dark green or black as a result of
necrosis (Fig. 4.13c).
In many instances where the coelom had not been penetrated, the bacteria in the
wound spread and caused the death of the sand dollar. Such pathogenic bacteria
may be similar to that reported in Meoma ventricosa in Curaçao by Nagelkerken
et al. (1999). In this instance a tetradotoxin-producing bacterial strain of the genus
Pseudoalteromonas was found in the sediment and was ingested by M. ventricosa.
The density of such strains of bacteria may have increased as a result of the
outflow of polluted water from the harbour.
In Bocas del Toro, only 2.8 % of the shallow habitats in the archipelago are
within the protected area (Guzman and Guevara 2002a). Since 1997, coastal
environments in Bocas del Toro have changed, as infrastructure such as roads,
marinas, and hotels have developed. Destruction of these seagrass habitats is
resulting in an increase in runoff and sedimentation in the coastal zone (Guzman
and Guevara 1998). This has already started to affect the coral reefs (Guzman and
Guevara 2001), and could potentially modify the function of the remaining coastal
ecosystems.
The illegal harvesting of sea cucumbers continues to put pressure on the
remaining populations particularly on the Caribbean coast of Panama, along the
coastal perimeter of Laguna de Chiriquí, from the point of Península Valiente
through the southern section of Isla Popa and Cayo Agua (Cruz 2000; Guzman and
Guevara 2002a).
4.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
Echinoderm diversity in Panama is reported to be greater on both the Caribbean
(Alvarado et al. 2008) and eastern Pacific coasts (Alvarado et al. 2010) than in
other Central American countries. The length of coastline, with high levels of
coastal heterogeneity may explain high levels of species richness. However, this
diversity relative to other Central American countries is probably more of a
reflection of the research effort that has taken place in Panama. The first phase of
echinoderm research in Panama began in the late 1800’s with the collections made
by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross in the eastern Pacific. This period
of exploration resulted in many new species being described. The second phase of
echinoderm research in Panama in the 1930’s and 1940’s continued to explore the
136
S. E. Coppard and J. J. Alvarado