ATP-forming steps. PEPCK primarily produces
ITP or GTP, the terminal phosphate residue of
which, however, is transferred to ADP by a nucleoside diphosphate kinase [9]. The fumarate
reductase reaction is accompanied by a phosphorylation in all invertebrates, but not in the goldfish. One further ATP arises from each step of the
conversion of succinate to propionate and of
acetyl-CoA to acetate, and from the formation
of branched-chain fatty acids by condensation
of two acyl-CoA residues [83, 102, 225, 226]
(Figs. 14.11-14.13). Thus, the complete conversion of a glycogen-bound glucosyl residue to volatile fatty acids yields seven ATP, i.e. more than
twice the number (three ATP) arising during the
production of lactate or opines. The synthesis of
methyl fatty acids, instead of unbranched volatile
fatty acids, in Ascaris and some other animals
does not increase the ATP yield and must, therefore, have some other biological importance
[205]. One ATP per mole amino acids arises during succinate formation from aspartate [102].
References
1. Abraham M, Horvath L. and Szajani B.: Isolation and
characterization of pig muscle aldolase. A comparative
study. Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 80: 847-852
(1985)
2. Aman R. A., Kenyon G. L. and Wang C. c.: Crosslinking of the enzymes in the glycosome of Trypanosoma brucei. J. bio!. Chern. 260: 6966-73 (1985)
3. Andreeva I. E. et a!.: Phosphorylase kinase from
chicken skeletal muscle - Quaternary structure, regulatory properties and partial proteolysis. Eur. J. Biochern. 158: 99-106 (1986)
4. Andreone T. L. et al: The amino acid sequence of rat
liver glucokinase deduced from cloned eDNA. J. BioI.
Chern. 264: 363-369 (1989)
5. Baldwin J. and Gyuris E.: Loggerhead turtle lactate
dehydrogenases. How general is the apparent adaptation to prolonged anaerobiosis displayed by the lactate
dehydrogenase isoenzymes from turtles of the genus
Pseudemys? Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 76:
191-195 (1983)
6. Baldwin J. and Lake P. S.: Lactate dehydrogenase
homopolymer of hagfish heart and the single lactate
dehydrogenase of lampreys display greater immunochemical similarity to LDH-C4 than to LDH-B4
of teleost fish. J. expo Zoo!. 242: 99-102
(1987)
7. Baldwin J., Mortimer K. and Patak A.: Do ascidians
possess the ancestral subunit type of vertebrate lactate
dehydrogenase? J. expo Zoo!. 246: 109-114 (1988)
8. Baldwin J., Davison W. and Forster M. E.: Properties
of the muscle and heart lactate dehydrogenases of the
New Zealand hagfish, Eptatretus cirrhatus: Functional
and evolutionary implications. J. expo Zoo!. 250:
135-139 (1989)
References
553
9. Barrett J.: Biochemistry of parasitic helminths. Macmillan, London 1981
10. Batke J.: Remarks on the supramolecular organization
of the glycolytic system in vivo. FEBS Letters 251:
13-16 (1989)
11. Bazan J. E, Fletterick R. J. and Pilkis S. J.: Evolution
of a bifunctional enzyme: 6-phosphofructo-2-kinasel
fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
USA 86: 9642-46 (1989)
12. Becker K. J. et a!.: Purification of pyruvate kinase
isoenzymes type M1 and M2 from dog (Canis familiaris) and comparison of their properties with those from
chicken and rat. Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 83:
823-829 (1986)
13. van Beneden R. J. and Powers D. A.: The isozymes of
glucose-phosphate isomerase (GPI-A2 and GPI-B2)
from the teleost fish Fundulus heteroclitus (L.). J. bio!.
Chern. 260: 14596-603 (1985)
14. Biethinger M., Hoffmann R. and Hofer H. w.: Phosphofructokinase from mollusc muscle is activated by
phosphorylation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 287:
263-267 (1991)
15. Bishop J. G. and Corces V. G.: The nucleotide
sequence of a Drosophila melanogaster enolase gene.
Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 191 (1990)
16. Bosca L. and Corredor C.: Is phosphofructokinase the
rate-limiting step of glycolysis? Trends biochem. Sci. 9:
372-373 (1984)
17. Bowen C. E.: Facultative anaerobiosis in Haliotis
(ormer/abalone): Pyruvate kinase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activities. Compo Biochem. Physio!' Pt. B 77: 197-200 (1984)
18. Brinkhoff w., StOckmann K. and Grieshaber M.:
Natural occurrence of anaerobiosis in molluscs from
intertidal inhabitats. Oecologia 57: 151-155 (1983)
19. Brooks S. P. J. and Storey K. B.: The role of protein
kinases in anoxia tolerance in facultative anaerobes:
Purification and characterization of a protein kinase
that phosphorylates pyruvate kinase. Biochim. biophys. Acta 1073: 253-259 (1991)
20. Brooks S. P. J. and Storey K. B.: Where is the glycolytic complex? A critical evaluation of present data
from muscle tissue (Review Letter). FEBS Letters
278: 135-138 (1991)
21. Bryant C. (ed.): Metazoan life without oxygen. Chapman & Hall, New York 1991
22. Buczylko J., Hargrave P. A. and Kochman M.:
Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase from Helix pomatia
(I-II). Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 67: 225-238
(1980)
23. Burgess D. G. and Penhoet E. E.: Characterization of
the chicken aldolase B gene. J. bio!. Chern. 260:
4604-14 (1985)
24. Butterworth P. E. and Barrett J.: Anaerobic metabolism in the free-living nematode Panagrellus redivivus.
Physio!. Zoo!. 58: 9-17 (1985)
25. Cannata J. J. B. and Cazzulo J. J.: The aerobic fermentation of glucose by Trypanosoma cruzi. Compo
Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 79: 297-308 (1984)
26. Cardenas M. L., Rabajille E. and Niemeyer H.:
Fructose is a good substrate for rat liver glucokinase (hexokinase D). Biochem. J. 222: 363-370
(1984)
27. Carlsson K. H. and Glide G.: Isolation and characterization of D-Iactate dehydrogenase from muscle and
hepatopancreas of Limulus polyphemus. J. compo Physio!. B 155: 723-731 (1985)
ITP or GTP, the terminal phosphate residue of
which, however, is transferred to ADP by a nucleoside diphosphate kinase [9]. The fumarate
reductase reaction is accompanied by a phosphorylation in all invertebrates, but not in the goldfish. One further ATP arises from each step of the
conversion of succinate to propionate and of
acetyl-CoA to acetate, and from the formation
of branched-chain fatty acids by condensation
of two acyl-CoA residues [83, 102, 225, 226]
(Figs. 14.11-14.13). Thus, the complete conversion of a glycogen-bound glucosyl residue to volatile fatty acids yields seven ATP, i.e. more than
twice the number (three ATP) arising during the
production of lactate or opines. The synthesis of
methyl fatty acids, instead of unbranched volatile
fatty acids, in Ascaris and some other animals
does not increase the ATP yield and must, therefore, have some other biological importance
[205]. One ATP per mole amino acids arises during succinate formation from aspartate [102].
References
1. Abraham M, Horvath L. and Szajani B.: Isolation and
characterization of pig muscle aldolase. A comparative
study. Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 80: 847-852
(1985)
2. Aman R. A., Kenyon G. L. and Wang C. c.: Crosslinking of the enzymes in the glycosome of Trypanosoma brucei. J. bio!. Chern. 260: 6966-73 (1985)
3. Andreeva I. E. et a!.: Phosphorylase kinase from
chicken skeletal muscle - Quaternary structure, regulatory properties and partial proteolysis. Eur. J. Biochern. 158: 99-106 (1986)
4. Andreone T. L. et al: The amino acid sequence of rat
liver glucokinase deduced from cloned eDNA. J. BioI.
Chern. 264: 363-369 (1989)
5. Baldwin J. and Gyuris E.: Loggerhead turtle lactate
dehydrogenases. How general is the apparent adaptation to prolonged anaerobiosis displayed by the lactate
dehydrogenase isoenzymes from turtles of the genus
Pseudemys? Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 76:
191-195 (1983)
6. Baldwin J. and Lake P. S.: Lactate dehydrogenase
homopolymer of hagfish heart and the single lactate
dehydrogenase of lampreys display greater immunochemical similarity to LDH-C4 than to LDH-B4
of teleost fish. J. expo Zoo!. 242: 99-102
(1987)
7. Baldwin J., Mortimer K. and Patak A.: Do ascidians
possess the ancestral subunit type of vertebrate lactate
dehydrogenase? J. expo Zoo!. 246: 109-114 (1988)
8. Baldwin J., Davison W. and Forster M. E.: Properties
of the muscle and heart lactate dehydrogenases of the
New Zealand hagfish, Eptatretus cirrhatus: Functional
and evolutionary implications. J. expo Zoo!. 250:
135-139 (1989)
References
553
9. Barrett J.: Biochemistry of parasitic helminths. Macmillan, London 1981
10. Batke J.: Remarks on the supramolecular organization
of the glycolytic system in vivo. FEBS Letters 251:
13-16 (1989)
11. Bazan J. E, Fletterick R. J. and Pilkis S. J.: Evolution
of a bifunctional enzyme: 6-phosphofructo-2-kinasel
fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
USA 86: 9642-46 (1989)
12. Becker K. J. et a!.: Purification of pyruvate kinase
isoenzymes type M1 and M2 from dog (Canis familiaris) and comparison of their properties with those from
chicken and rat. Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 83:
823-829 (1986)
13. van Beneden R. J. and Powers D. A.: The isozymes of
glucose-phosphate isomerase (GPI-A2 and GPI-B2)
from the teleost fish Fundulus heteroclitus (L.). J. bio!.
Chern. 260: 14596-603 (1985)
14. Biethinger M., Hoffmann R. and Hofer H. w.: Phosphofructokinase from mollusc muscle is activated by
phosphorylation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 287:
263-267 (1991)
15. Bishop J. G. and Corces V. G.: The nucleotide
sequence of a Drosophila melanogaster enolase gene.
Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 191 (1990)
16. Bosca L. and Corredor C.: Is phosphofructokinase the
rate-limiting step of glycolysis? Trends biochem. Sci. 9:
372-373 (1984)
17. Bowen C. E.: Facultative anaerobiosis in Haliotis
(ormer/abalone): Pyruvate kinase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activities. Compo Biochem. Physio!' Pt. B 77: 197-200 (1984)
18. Brinkhoff w., StOckmann K. and Grieshaber M.:
Natural occurrence of anaerobiosis in molluscs from
intertidal inhabitats. Oecologia 57: 151-155 (1983)
19. Brooks S. P. J. and Storey K. B.: The role of protein
kinases in anoxia tolerance in facultative anaerobes:
Purification and characterization of a protein kinase
that phosphorylates pyruvate kinase. Biochim. biophys. Acta 1073: 253-259 (1991)
20. Brooks S. P. J. and Storey K. B.: Where is the glycolytic complex? A critical evaluation of present data
from muscle tissue (Review Letter). FEBS Letters
278: 135-138 (1991)
21. Bryant C. (ed.): Metazoan life without oxygen. Chapman & Hall, New York 1991
22. Buczylko J., Hargrave P. A. and Kochman M.:
Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase from Helix pomatia
(I-II). Compo Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 67: 225-238
(1980)
23. Burgess D. G. and Penhoet E. E.: Characterization of
the chicken aldolase B gene. J. bio!. Chern. 260:
4604-14 (1985)
24. Butterworth P. E. and Barrett J.: Anaerobic metabolism in the free-living nematode Panagrellus redivivus.
Physio!. Zoo!. 58: 9-17 (1985)
25. Cannata J. J. B. and Cazzulo J. J.: The aerobic fermentation of glucose by Trypanosoma cruzi. Compo
Biochem. Physio!. Pt. B 79: 297-308 (1984)
26. Cardenas M. L., Rabajille E. and Niemeyer H.:
Fructose is a good substrate for rat liver glucokinase (hexokinase D). Biochem. J. 222: 363-370
(1984)
27. Carlsson K. H. and Glide G.: Isolation and characterization of D-Iactate dehydrogenase from muscle and
hepatopancreas of Limulus polyphemus. J. compo Physio!. B 155: 723-731 (1985)