XVI
Contents
14.12 Special Pathways of Anaerobic
Energy Production. . . . . . . . . . . . 548
14.12.1 Synthesis of Ethanol
and Acetic Acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
14.12.2 Synthesis of Succinate, Volatile
15
15.1
15.1.1
15.1.2
15.1.3
15.1.4
15.1.5
15.2
15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.2.4
15.3
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.3.3
15.3.4
15.4
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.4.3
15.4.4
15.5
15.5.1
Fatty Acids and Alanine . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Chemistry and Metabolism
of the Fatty Acids ............. 564
Structure and Nomenclature
of the Fatty Acids ............. 564
Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids . . . . . . 569
Conversion of Fatty Acids . . . . . . . 572
Oxidation of Fatty Acids ........ 576
Ketone Body Formation
and Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Reserve Lipids and Lipid-Rich
Secretions .................. 580
Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides) . . . . 581
Energy Substrates in Muscles
and Other Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Wax Esters, Hydrocarbons
and "Ether Glycerides" ......... 583
Fat-Rich Secretions ........... 585
Lipids of the Body Surface. . . . . . . 586
Epidermal Lipids of Terrestrial
Vertebrates ................. 587
Skin Fats of the Mammals . . . . . . . 587
Lipids of the Uropygial Gland .... 589
Cuticular Lipids of the Insects . . . . 591
Membrane Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Phospholipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Biosynthesis of the Phospholipids . . 602
Phosphonolipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Glycolipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Lipids with Regulatory Functions . . 610
Prostaglandins
and Other Eicosanoids . . . . . . . . . 610
15.5.2 Insect Juvenile Hormones ....... 613
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
16
Sterols and Steroids. . . . . . . . . . 624
16.1
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol ...... 625
16.2
Sterols of Different Animal
Groups ................... 627
16.2.1 Sterols of the Vertebrates ........ 628
16.2.2 Sterols of the Insects ........... 628
16.2.3 Sterols of Tunicates, Annelids,
Crustaceans and Molluscs . . . . . . . 632
16.2.4 Sterols of the Echinoderms ...... 633
16.2.5 Sterols of the Cnidaria ......... 634
16.2.6
16.2.7
16.3
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4
16.4
16.5
16.5.1
16.5.2
16.6
17
17.1
17.1.1
17.1.2
17.1.3
17.1.4
17.2
17.2.1
17.2.2
17.2.3
17.2.4
17.2.5
17.3
17.3.1
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
17.4
17.5
18
18.1
18.1.1
18.1.2
Sterols of the Porifera. . . . . . . . . . 634
Sterols of the Protozoa . . . . . . . . . 636
Steroid Hormones
of the Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones. . 639
Steroid-Binding Proteins ........ 639
Corticosteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Sex Hormones ............... 641
Ecdysteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Bile Acids and Bile Alcohols . . . . . 646
Biosynthesis of Bile Acids
and Bile Alcohols ............. 646
Bile Salts of Individual Animal
Groups ................... 648
Calciferols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Ester Hydrolases, ATPases
and Carboanhydrases. . . . . . . . . 657
Carboxylester Hydrolases ....... 657
Carboxyl, Aryl and Acetyl
Esterases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Cholinesterases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Lipases and Cholesterol Ester
Hydrolases ................. 661
Phospholipases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Phosphatases
and Phosphodiesterases. . . . . . . . . 665
Alkaline Phosphatases . . . . . . . . . 665
Acid Phosphatases ............ 666
Substrate-Specific
Phosphomonoesterases . . . . . . . . . 667
cAMP and cGMP
Phosphodiesterases ............ 668
Nucleases .................. 669
ATPases (with an Excursus
on Ion Channels). . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Na+,K+-ATPase .............. 670
Ca 2 +-ATPase ................. 672
K+ ,H+ -ATPase
and Anion-Sensitive ATPase ...... 673
Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Sulphatases ................. 676
Carboanhydrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Oxidative Metabolism . . . . . . . . 685
The Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . 688
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
and Citrate Synthase ........... 689
Aconitase
and Isocitrate Dehydrogenases . . . . 690
Contents
14.12 Special Pathways of Anaerobic
Energy Production. . . . . . . . . . . . 548
14.12.1 Synthesis of Ethanol
and Acetic Acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
14.12.2 Synthesis of Succinate, Volatile
15
15.1
15.1.1
15.1.2
15.1.3
15.1.4
15.1.5
15.2
15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.2.4
15.3
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.3.3
15.3.4
15.4
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.4.3
15.4.4
15.5
15.5.1
Fatty Acids and Alanine . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Chemistry and Metabolism
of the Fatty Acids ............. 564
Structure and Nomenclature
of the Fatty Acids ............. 564
Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids . . . . . . 569
Conversion of Fatty Acids . . . . . . . 572
Oxidation of Fatty Acids ........ 576
Ketone Body Formation
and Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Reserve Lipids and Lipid-Rich
Secretions .................. 580
Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides) . . . . 581
Energy Substrates in Muscles
and Other Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Wax Esters, Hydrocarbons
and "Ether Glycerides" ......... 583
Fat-Rich Secretions ........... 585
Lipids of the Body Surface. . . . . . . 586
Epidermal Lipids of Terrestrial
Vertebrates ................. 587
Skin Fats of the Mammals . . . . . . . 587
Lipids of the Uropygial Gland .... 589
Cuticular Lipids of the Insects . . . . 591
Membrane Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Phospholipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Biosynthesis of the Phospholipids . . 602
Phosphonolipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Glycolipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Lipids with Regulatory Functions . . 610
Prostaglandins
and Other Eicosanoids . . . . . . . . . 610
15.5.2 Insect Juvenile Hormones ....... 613
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
16
Sterols and Steroids. . . . . . . . . . 624
16.1
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol ...... 625
16.2
Sterols of Different Animal
Groups ................... 627
16.2.1 Sterols of the Vertebrates ........ 628
16.2.2 Sterols of the Insects ........... 628
16.2.3 Sterols of Tunicates, Annelids,
Crustaceans and Molluscs . . . . . . . 632
16.2.4 Sterols of the Echinoderms ...... 633
16.2.5 Sterols of the Cnidaria ......... 634
16.2.6
16.2.7
16.3
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4
16.4
16.5
16.5.1
16.5.2
16.6
17
17.1
17.1.1
17.1.2
17.1.3
17.1.4
17.2
17.2.1
17.2.2
17.2.3
17.2.4
17.2.5
17.3
17.3.1
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
17.4
17.5
18
18.1
18.1.1
18.1.2
Sterols of the Porifera. . . . . . . . . . 634
Sterols of the Protozoa . . . . . . . . . 636
Steroid Hormones
of the Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones. . 639
Steroid-Binding Proteins ........ 639
Corticosteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Sex Hormones ............... 641
Ecdysteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Bile Acids and Bile Alcohols . . . . . 646
Biosynthesis of Bile Acids
and Bile Alcohols ............. 646
Bile Salts of Individual Animal
Groups ................... 648
Calciferols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Ester Hydrolases, ATPases
and Carboanhydrases. . . . . . . . . 657
Carboxylester Hydrolases ....... 657
Carboxyl, Aryl and Acetyl
Esterases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Cholinesterases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Lipases and Cholesterol Ester
Hydrolases ................. 661
Phospholipases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Phosphatases
and Phosphodiesterases. . . . . . . . . 665
Alkaline Phosphatases . . . . . . . . . 665
Acid Phosphatases ............ 666
Substrate-Specific
Phosphomonoesterases . . . . . . . . . 667
cAMP and cGMP
Phosphodiesterases ............ 668
Nucleases .................. 669
ATPases (with an Excursus
on Ion Channels). . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Na+,K+-ATPase .............. 670
Ca 2 +-ATPase ................. 672
K+ ,H+ -ATPase
and Anion-Sensitive ATPase ...... 673
Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Sulphatases ................. 676
Carboanhydrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Oxidative Metabolism . . . . . . . . 685
The Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . 688
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
and Citrate Synthase ........... 689
Aconitase
and Isocitrate Dehydrogenases . . . . 690