Chapter 16
Zostera: Biology, Ecology, and Management
Kenneth A. Moore
∗,#
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine Science, College of William
and Mary, 1208 Greate Road, Gloucester Point, VA 23061, USA
Frederick T. Short
†
Department of Natural Resources, Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, University
of New Hampshire, 85 Adams Point Road, Durham, NH 03824, USA
I. Introduction
The nine species comprising the genus Zostera discussed in this chapter form a widespread and relatively well-studied group of seagrasses. Some of
the earliest studies of seagrasses occurred within the
genus Zostera, especially the extensively researched
Zostera marina L. (Petersen, 1890, 1918). The proximity of this species to industrialized areas and centers of scientific investigation in North America,
Europe, and Asia has encouraged a continued scientific focus. Like all seagrasses, those of the genus
Zostera live in intertidal and subtidal inshore waters,
forming a critical habitat and a basis of the food web.
Study of the genus Zostera is itself representative of
trends in seagrass science, with PAM fluorometry
assessments of photosynthesis and genetic investigations among the newer efforts. We here review the
current knowledge of this important genus, although
space constraints do not allow exhaustive coverage
of all past and current Zostera research. We also point
to future research directions.
II. Comparative Biology
A. Taxonomic Overview
All Zostera species are in the family Zosteraceae.
The genus is characterized by species that are mo∗ Author for correspondence, email: moore@vims.edu
# VIMS Contribution No. 2656
† JEL Contribution No. 418
noecious with monopodial, creeping rhizomes that
are usually perennial (den Hartog, 1970; Tomlinson, 1982; den Hartog and Kuo, Chapter 1). Zostera
shoots are characterized by both vegetative foliage
leaves and sexually reproductive stems with spikelike spadices and unisexual flowers on one flattened
side. Most are mono-meristematic leaf-replacing
species (Short and Duarte, 2001), although Zostera
japonica is a di-meristematic leaf-replacing species
and the erect shoots of Zostera tasmanica can become secondarily rooted and form new rhizomes.
There are ongoing discussions about the taxonomy
of the family Zosteraceae, the genus Zostera, and
species designations within the Zostera genus (Kuo,
2001; Kuo and den Hartog, 2001; Tomlinson and
Posluzny, 2001; Les et al., 2002). Species recognition in Zostera in some regions has been difficult
due to wide intra-specific variability that makes the
use of taxonomic characters subjective (Green and
Short, 2003). Ultimately, accurate taxonomic speciation will require a combination of approaches including molecular evidence and morphological analyses
(Tomlinson and Posluzny, 2001). The species designations of the Zostera species of Australia and New
Zealand, in particular, have recently been revised
(Les et al., 2002) with merger of the Australian/New
Zealand Zostera within the single species Zostera
capricorni and renaming of the genus Heterozostera
to Zostera. Zostera novazelandica Setchell and Z.
capricorni Ascherson, found throughout the coasts
of New Zealand, from Parengarenga Harbour in the
north to Stewart Island in the south (Inglis, 2003),
were found to be conspecific. The Australian species,
361–386.
A. W. D. Larkum et al. (eds.), Seagrasses: Biology, Ecology and Conservation, pp.
c
2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
Zostera: Biology, Ecology, and Management
Kenneth A. Moore
∗,#
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine Science, College of William
and Mary, 1208 Greate Road, Gloucester Point, VA 23061, USA
Frederick T. Short
†
Department of Natural Resources, Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, University
of New Hampshire, 85 Adams Point Road, Durham, NH 03824, USA
I. Introduction
The nine species comprising the genus Zostera discussed in this chapter form a widespread and relatively well-studied group of seagrasses. Some of
the earliest studies of seagrasses occurred within the
genus Zostera, especially the extensively researched
Zostera marina L. (Petersen, 1890, 1918). The proximity of this species to industrialized areas and centers of scientific investigation in North America,
Europe, and Asia has encouraged a continued scientific focus. Like all seagrasses, those of the genus
Zostera live in intertidal and subtidal inshore waters,
forming a critical habitat and a basis of the food web.
Study of the genus Zostera is itself representative of
trends in seagrass science, with PAM fluorometry
assessments of photosynthesis and genetic investigations among the newer efforts. We here review the
current knowledge of this important genus, although
space constraints do not allow exhaustive coverage
of all past and current Zostera research. We also point
to future research directions.
II. Comparative Biology
A. Taxonomic Overview
All Zostera species are in the family Zosteraceae.
The genus is characterized by species that are mo∗ Author for correspondence, email: moore@vims.edu
# VIMS Contribution No. 2656
† JEL Contribution No. 418
noecious with monopodial, creeping rhizomes that
are usually perennial (den Hartog, 1970; Tomlinson, 1982; den Hartog and Kuo, Chapter 1). Zostera
shoots are characterized by both vegetative foliage
leaves and sexually reproductive stems with spikelike spadices and unisexual flowers on one flattened
side. Most are mono-meristematic leaf-replacing
species (Short and Duarte, 2001), although Zostera
japonica is a di-meristematic leaf-replacing species
and the erect shoots of Zostera tasmanica can become secondarily rooted and form new rhizomes.
There are ongoing discussions about the taxonomy
of the family Zosteraceae, the genus Zostera, and
species designations within the Zostera genus (Kuo,
2001; Kuo and den Hartog, 2001; Tomlinson and
Posluzny, 2001; Les et al., 2002). Species recognition in Zostera in some regions has been difficult
due to wide intra-specific variability that makes the
use of taxonomic characters subjective (Green and
Short, 2003). Ultimately, accurate taxonomic speciation will require a combination of approaches including molecular evidence and morphological analyses
(Tomlinson and Posluzny, 2001). The species designations of the Zostera species of Australia and New
Zealand, in particular, have recently been revised
(Les et al., 2002) with merger of the Australian/New
Zealand Zostera within the single species Zostera
capricorni and renaming of the genus Heterozostera
to Zostera. Zostera novazelandica Setchell and Z.
capricorni Ascherson, found throughout the coasts
of New Zealand, from Parengarenga Harbour in the
north to Stewart Island in the south (Inglis, 2003),
were found to be conspecific. The Australian species,
361–386.
A. W. D. Larkum et al. (eds.), Seagrasses: Biology, Ecology and Conservation, pp.
c
2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.