Finally, it should be noted, in addition to many cancercausing chemicals, that microorganisms are also responsible, at least for the initial mechanisms, of cancer diseases.
For example, the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which
infects about two-thirds of the world population, plays a
major role in the development of gastric cancer. Human
papilloma virus (HPV) is itself responsible for almost all
cervical cancers, while Kaposi’s sarcoma is linked to infection with the virus of the herpes family (HHV8, Human
Herpes Virus 8). Progress in the identification and characterization of these microbial pathogens as well as knowledge
of infectious processes and physiopathology can exploit the
microbes own weapons to develop effective therapies
against these diseases that too often prove fatal.
11.4.6 Epilogue
Interactions between microorganisms and animals are part of
a continuum from parasitism to mutualism. They generate
associated entities whose properties often exceed the sum of
preexisting structures in the interacting partners. The complexity of associations is a major driver of the evolution and
adaptation of species. A better understanding of the
interactions between microorganisms and animals in the
environment where they operate provides knowledge with
multiple outcomes in all areas. We can mention basic
biological functions of genes and their products, as well as
regulatory networks at the molecular and cellular levels. We
can also quote medicine in the development of diagnostics
and the development of new therapies against infectious
diseases including recurrent reemerging ones or biotechnology on the production of antimicrobial molecules or interest
in food and livestock production. The advent of DNA
sequencing of the complete genomes of microorganisms
and their animal hosts, including the human genome,
provides new insights for understanding the interactions
between microbes and animals, which should be optimized
to the benefit of humans and its environment.
11.5 Conclusion
Biotic interactions, whether transient or sustainable and
intraspecific or interspecific, have played and continue to
play a major role in the development of microorganisms and
macroorganisms with which they are associated, substantially altering the structure and the level of organization.
They were decisive in the evolution of organisms, as
exemplified by the endosymbiosis as the origin of the
eukaryotic cell structures, and have contributed to the adaptation and biodiversity of interacting organisms.
Microorganisms interact with each other but also with
mobile genetic elements and macroorganisms occupying
the same ecosystems. In addition, biotic interactions involve
a large variety of entities, unicellular and multicellular, and
concern different levels of complexity, starting from the
molecule and the gene through the cell, tissues, and organs
to the shape of organisms.
Microorganisms stand prominently in the associations
between living entities as they are involved in all types of
known biotic interactions. The complexity of these
interactions and the importance of multiple interactions
make them difficult to understand, and many of them are
difficult to describe with the scientific terminology currently
available. Moreover, the meaning of concepts has changed
significantly over time, including improved knowledge, and
the meaning of terms describing biotic interactions can vary
significantly from one discipline to another.
The importance of biotic interactions implies that
microorganisms must first be defined by the number of
interactions in which they participate (and thus their social
life) and microbial communities (and possibly associated
with eukaryotic hosts) in terms of networks of interactions.
In food webs, microorganisms provide essential metabolic
functions, from primary production to decomposition, and
they are essential to the mobilization of flow of matter and
energy in the environment. Interactions between
microorganisms and multicellular eukaryotes also have a
major impact on the health of plants, animals, and human
in ecosystems and on ecosystem health itself.
References
Abanda-Nkpwatt D, Krimmb U, Allison Coiner H, Schreiber L,
Schwab W (2006) Plant volatiles can minimize the growth suppression of epiphytic bacteria by the phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis
cinerea in co-culture experiments. Environ Exp Bot 56:108–119
Abdallah MA, van Pittius NC, Champion PAD, Cox J, Luirink J,
Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE, Appelmelk BJ, Bitter W (2007)
Type VII secretion-mycobacteria show the way. Nat Rev 5:883–891
Achouak W, Conrod S, Cohen V, Heulin T (2004) Phenotypic variation
of Pseudomonas brassicacearum as a plant root-colonization strategy. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 17:872–879
Agrios GN (1997) Plant pathology, 4th edn. Academic, San Diego
Ahmed AM, Hurd H (2006) Immune stimulation and malaria infection
impose reproductive costs in Anopheles gambiae via follicular
apoptosis. Microbes Infect 8:308–315
Alabouvette C, Ho ¨per C, Lemanceau P, Steinberg C (1996) Soil suppressiveness to diseases induced by soilborne plant pathogens. In:
Stotsky G, Bollag JM (eds) Soil biochemistry. Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, pp 371–413
Alabouvette C, Olivain C, Steinberg C (2006) Biological control of
plant pathogens: the European situation. Eur J Plant Pathol
114:329–341
Aliprantis AO, Yang RB, Mark MR, Suggett S, Devaux B, Radolf JD,
Klimpel GR, Godowski P, Zychlinsky A (1999) Cell activation and
apoptosis by bacterial lipoproteins through toll-like receptor-2. Science 285:736–739
11 Microorganisms and Biotic Interactions
437
For example, the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which
infects about two-thirds of the world population, plays a
major role in the development of gastric cancer. Human
papilloma virus (HPV) is itself responsible for almost all
cervical cancers, while Kaposi’s sarcoma is linked to infection with the virus of the herpes family (HHV8, Human
Herpes Virus 8). Progress in the identification and characterization of these microbial pathogens as well as knowledge
of infectious processes and physiopathology can exploit the
microbes own weapons to develop effective therapies
against these diseases that too often prove fatal.
11.4.6 Epilogue
Interactions between microorganisms and animals are part of
a continuum from parasitism to mutualism. They generate
associated entities whose properties often exceed the sum of
preexisting structures in the interacting partners. The complexity of associations is a major driver of the evolution and
adaptation of species. A better understanding of the
interactions between microorganisms and animals in the
environment where they operate provides knowledge with
multiple outcomes in all areas. We can mention basic
biological functions of genes and their products, as well as
regulatory networks at the molecular and cellular levels. We
can also quote medicine in the development of diagnostics
and the development of new therapies against infectious
diseases including recurrent reemerging ones or biotechnology on the production of antimicrobial molecules or interest
in food and livestock production. The advent of DNA
sequencing of the complete genomes of microorganisms
and their animal hosts, including the human genome,
provides new insights for understanding the interactions
between microbes and animals, which should be optimized
to the benefit of humans and its environment.
11.5 Conclusion
Biotic interactions, whether transient or sustainable and
intraspecific or interspecific, have played and continue to
play a major role in the development of microorganisms and
macroorganisms with which they are associated, substantially altering the structure and the level of organization.
They were decisive in the evolution of organisms, as
exemplified by the endosymbiosis as the origin of the
eukaryotic cell structures, and have contributed to the adaptation and biodiversity of interacting organisms.
Microorganisms interact with each other but also with
mobile genetic elements and macroorganisms occupying
the same ecosystems. In addition, biotic interactions involve
a large variety of entities, unicellular and multicellular, and
concern different levels of complexity, starting from the
molecule and the gene through the cell, tissues, and organs
to the shape of organisms.
Microorganisms stand prominently in the associations
between living entities as they are involved in all types of
known biotic interactions. The complexity of these
interactions and the importance of multiple interactions
make them difficult to understand, and many of them are
difficult to describe with the scientific terminology currently
available. Moreover, the meaning of concepts has changed
significantly over time, including improved knowledge, and
the meaning of terms describing biotic interactions can vary
significantly from one discipline to another.
The importance of biotic interactions implies that
microorganisms must first be defined by the number of
interactions in which they participate (and thus their social
life) and microbial communities (and possibly associated
with eukaryotic hosts) in terms of networks of interactions.
In food webs, microorganisms provide essential metabolic
functions, from primary production to decomposition, and
they are essential to the mobilization of flow of matter and
energy in the environment. Interactions between
microorganisms and multicellular eukaryotes also have a
major impact on the health of plants, animals, and human
in ecosystems and on ecosystem health itself.
References
Abanda-Nkpwatt D, Krimmb U, Allison Coiner H, Schreiber L,
Schwab W (2006) Plant volatiles can minimize the growth suppression of epiphytic bacteria by the phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis
cinerea in co-culture experiments. Environ Exp Bot 56:108–119
Abdallah MA, van Pittius NC, Champion PAD, Cox J, Luirink J,
Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE, Appelmelk BJ, Bitter W (2007)
Type VII secretion-mycobacteria show the way. Nat Rev 5:883–891
Achouak W, Conrod S, Cohen V, Heulin T (2004) Phenotypic variation
of Pseudomonas brassicacearum as a plant root-colonization strategy. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 17:872–879
Agrios GN (1997) Plant pathology, 4th edn. Academic, San Diego
Ahmed AM, Hurd H (2006) Immune stimulation and malaria infection
impose reproductive costs in Anopheles gambiae via follicular
apoptosis. Microbes Infect 8:308–315
Alabouvette C, Ho ¨per C, Lemanceau P, Steinberg C (1996) Soil suppressiveness to diseases induced by soilborne plant pathogens. In:
Stotsky G, Bollag JM (eds) Soil biochemistry. Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, pp 371–413
Alabouvette C, Olivain C, Steinberg C (2006) Biological control of
plant pathogens: the European situation. Eur J Plant Pathol
114:329–341
Aliprantis AO, Yang RB, Mark MR, Suggett S, Devaux B, Radolf JD,
Klimpel GR, Godowski P, Zychlinsky A (1999) Cell activation and
apoptosis by bacterial lipoproteins through toll-like receptor-2. Science 285:736–739
11 Microorganisms and Biotic Interactions
437