exceed the average recovery time in any one location and
that chronic disturbances are minimized. In recent times,
the frequency and nature of major disturbances, such as
coral bleaching, outbreaks of A. planci, and severe storms,
have exceeded the capacity of many reefs around the
world to recover (Wilkinson, 2004). Such large-scale
events are typically not controllable by management
action. In contrast, eutrophication is much more manageable and can often be prevented by preservation of vegetation cover on land, reduction of fertilizer loss into the sea,
and restriction of aquaculture facilities to well-flushed
locations where dilution is rapid and the resistance and
resilience of the marine ecosystems are greatest. With
increasing reef disturbances as a result of global warming
and seawater acidification, management of water quality
and healthy fish abundances will be critically important
to the future of coral reef ecosystems.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the Australian Institute of
Marine Science, and the Marine and Tropical Sciences
Research Facility, a part of the Australian Government’s
Commonwealth Environment Research Facilities
Program.
Bibliography
Aerts, L. A. M., and Van Soest, R. W. M., 1997. Quantification of
sponge/coral interactions in a physically stressed reef community. NE Colombia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 148,
125–134.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Fabricius, K. E., 2000. Shifting roles of heterotrophy and autotrophy in coral energetics under varying turbidity. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,
252, 221–253.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2003. Variation in
coral photosynthesis, respiration and growth characteristics in
contrasting light microhabitats: an analogue to plants in forest
gaps and understoreys? Functional Ecology, 17, 246–259.
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nyström, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Birkeland, C., 1982. Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks of
Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Marine Biology, 69, 175–185.
Birkeland, C., 1988. Geographic comparisons of coral-reef community processes. In Proceedings of the 6th International Coral
Reef Symposium, Vol. 1, pp. 211–220.
Birkeland, C., 1997. Geographic differences in ecological processes
on coral reefs. In Birkeland, C. (ed.), Life and Death of Coral
Reefs. New York: Chapman & Hall, pp. 273–287.
Birrell, C. L., McCook, L. J., and Willis, B. L., 2005. Effects of algal
turfs and sediment on coral settlement. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 51, 408–414.
Bourke, L., Selig, E., and Spalding, M., 2002. Reefs at Risk in
Southeast Asia. Cambridge: World Resources Institute, 72 p.
Brock, R. E., and Smith, S. V., 1983. Response of coral reef
cryptofaunal communities to food and space. Coral Reefs, 1,
179–183.
Brodie, J., Fabricius, K., De’ath, G., and Okaji, K., 2005. Are
increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of
crown-of-thorns starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 51, 266–278.
Bruno, J., Petes, L. E., Harvell, D., and Hettinger, A., 2003. Nutrient
enrichment can increase the severity of coral diseases. Ecology
Letters, 6, 1056–1061.
Bryant, D. G., Burke, L., McManus, J., and Spalding, M., 1998.
Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World’s
Coral Reefs. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
Connell, J. H., 1997. Disturbance and recovery of coral assemblages. Coral Reefs, 16(Suppl), 101–113.
Connell, J. H., Hughes, T. P., and Wallace, C. C., 1997. A 30-year
study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at
several scales in space and time. Ecological Monographs, 67,
461–488.
Cooper, T., Gilmour, J., and Fabricius, K. E., 2009. Coral-based
bioindicators of changes in water quality on coastal coral reefs:
a review and recommendations for monitoring programs. Coral
Reefs, 28, 589–606.
Cooper, T. F., Uthicke, S., Humphrey, C., and Fabricius, K. E.,
2007. Gradients in water column nutrients, sediment parameters,
irradiance and coral reef development in the Whitsunday
Region, central Great Barrier Reef. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science, 74, 458–470.
Crossland, C. J., Bairn, D., and Ducrotoy, J. P., 2005. The coastal
zone: a domain of global interactions. In Crossland, C. J. (ed.),
Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene. Berlin: Springer, pp. 1–37.
Cuet, P., Naim, O., Faure, G., and Conan, J. Y., 1988. Nutrient-rich
groundwater impact on benthic communities of La Saline fringing reef (Reunion Island, Indian Ocean): preliminary results. In
Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium,
Vol. 2, pp. 207–212.
De’ath, G., and Fabricius, K. E., 2010. Water quality as regional
driver of coral biodiversity and macroalgal cover on the Great
Barrier Reef. Ecological Applications, 20, 840–850.
Diaz, R. J., 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world. Journal of
Environmental Quality, 30, 275–281.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Done, T. J., 1999. Coral community adaptability to environmental
change at the scales of regions, reefs and reef zones. American
Zoologist, 39, 66–79.
Dubinsky, Z., and Stambler, N., 1996. Marine pollution and coral
reefs. Global Change Biology, 2, 511–526.
Fabricius, K. E., 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of
corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 50, 125–146.
Fabricius, K., and De’ath, G., 2001. Environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of crustose coralline algae on
the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 19, 303–309.
Fabricius, K. E., and De’ath, G., 2004. Identifying ecological
change and its causes: a case study on coral reefs. Ecological
Applications, 14, 1448–1465.
Fabricius, K. E., Okaji, K., and De’ath, G., 2010. Three lines of evidence to link outbreaks of the crown-ofthorns seastar Acanthaster
planci to the release of larval food limitation. Coral Reefs.
Fabricius, K., De’ath, G., McCook, L., Turak, E., and Williams,
D. M., 2005. Changes in algal, coral and fish assemblages along
water quality gradients on the inshore Great Barrier Reef.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51, 384–398.
Fabricius, K., Wild, C., Wolanski, E., and Abele, D., 2003. Effects
of transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and muddy terrigenous sediments on the survival of hard coral recruits. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 57, 613–621.
Gibbs, R. J., Matthew, M. D., and Link, D. A., 1971. The relation
between sphere size and settling velocity. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 41, 7–18.
Hallock, P., 1988. The role of nutrient availability in bioerosion:
consequences to carbonate buildups. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 63, 275–291.
NUTRIENT POLLUTION/EUTROPHICATION
729
that chronic disturbances are minimized. In recent times,
the frequency and nature of major disturbances, such as
coral bleaching, outbreaks of A. planci, and severe storms,
have exceeded the capacity of many reefs around the
world to recover (Wilkinson, 2004). Such large-scale
events are typically not controllable by management
action. In contrast, eutrophication is much more manageable and can often be prevented by preservation of vegetation cover on land, reduction of fertilizer loss into the sea,
and restriction of aquaculture facilities to well-flushed
locations where dilution is rapid and the resistance and
resilience of the marine ecosystems are greatest. With
increasing reef disturbances as a result of global warming
and seawater acidification, management of water quality
and healthy fish abundances will be critically important
to the future of coral reef ecosystems.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the Australian Institute of
Marine Science, and the Marine and Tropical Sciences
Research Facility, a part of the Australian Government’s
Commonwealth Environment Research Facilities
Program.
Bibliography
Aerts, L. A. M., and Van Soest, R. W. M., 1997. Quantification of
sponge/coral interactions in a physically stressed reef community. NE Colombia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 148,
125–134.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Fabricius, K. E., 2000. Shifting roles of heterotrophy and autotrophy in coral energetics under varying turbidity. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,
252, 221–253.
Anthony, K. R. N., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2003. Variation in
coral photosynthesis, respiration and growth characteristics in
contrasting light microhabitats: an analogue to plants in forest
gaps and understoreys? Functional Ecology, 17, 246–259.
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nyström, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Birkeland, C., 1982. Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks of
Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Marine Biology, 69, 175–185.
Birkeland, C., 1988. Geographic comparisons of coral-reef community processes. In Proceedings of the 6th International Coral
Reef Symposium, Vol. 1, pp. 211–220.
Birkeland, C., 1997. Geographic differences in ecological processes
on coral reefs. In Birkeland, C. (ed.), Life and Death of Coral
Reefs. New York: Chapman & Hall, pp. 273–287.
Birrell, C. L., McCook, L. J., and Willis, B. L., 2005. Effects of algal
turfs and sediment on coral settlement. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 51, 408–414.
Bourke, L., Selig, E., and Spalding, M., 2002. Reefs at Risk in
Southeast Asia. Cambridge: World Resources Institute, 72 p.
Brock, R. E., and Smith, S. V., 1983. Response of coral reef
cryptofaunal communities to food and space. Coral Reefs, 1,
179–183.
Brodie, J., Fabricius, K., De’ath, G., and Okaji, K., 2005. Are
increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of
crown-of-thorns starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 51, 266–278.
Bruno, J., Petes, L. E., Harvell, D., and Hettinger, A., 2003. Nutrient
enrichment can increase the severity of coral diseases. Ecology
Letters, 6, 1056–1061.
Bryant, D. G., Burke, L., McManus, J., and Spalding, M., 1998.
Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World’s
Coral Reefs. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
Connell, J. H., 1997. Disturbance and recovery of coral assemblages. Coral Reefs, 16(Suppl), 101–113.
Connell, J. H., Hughes, T. P., and Wallace, C. C., 1997. A 30-year
study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at
several scales in space and time. Ecological Monographs, 67,
461–488.
Cooper, T., Gilmour, J., and Fabricius, K. E., 2009. Coral-based
bioindicators of changes in water quality on coastal coral reefs:
a review and recommendations for monitoring programs. Coral
Reefs, 28, 589–606.
Cooper, T. F., Uthicke, S., Humphrey, C., and Fabricius, K. E.,
2007. Gradients in water column nutrients, sediment parameters,
irradiance and coral reef development in the Whitsunday
Region, central Great Barrier Reef. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science, 74, 458–470.
Crossland, C. J., Bairn, D., and Ducrotoy, J. P., 2005. The coastal
zone: a domain of global interactions. In Crossland, C. J. (ed.),
Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene. Berlin: Springer, pp. 1–37.
Cuet, P., Naim, O., Faure, G., and Conan, J. Y., 1988. Nutrient-rich
groundwater impact on benthic communities of La Saline fringing reef (Reunion Island, Indian Ocean): preliminary results. In
Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium,
Vol. 2, pp. 207–212.
De’ath, G., and Fabricius, K. E., 2010. Water quality as regional
driver of coral biodiversity and macroalgal cover on the Great
Barrier Reef. Ecological Applications, 20, 840–850.
Diaz, R. J., 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world. Journal of
Environmental Quality, 30, 275–281.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Done, T. J., 1999. Coral community adaptability to environmental
change at the scales of regions, reefs and reef zones. American
Zoologist, 39, 66–79.
Dubinsky, Z., and Stambler, N., 1996. Marine pollution and coral
reefs. Global Change Biology, 2, 511–526.
Fabricius, K. E., 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of
corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 50, 125–146.
Fabricius, K., and De’ath, G., 2001. Environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of crustose coralline algae on
the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 19, 303–309.
Fabricius, K. E., and De’ath, G., 2004. Identifying ecological
change and its causes: a case study on coral reefs. Ecological
Applications, 14, 1448–1465.
Fabricius, K. E., Okaji, K., and De’ath, G., 2010. Three lines of evidence to link outbreaks of the crown-ofthorns seastar Acanthaster
planci to the release of larval food limitation. Coral Reefs.
Fabricius, K., De’ath, G., McCook, L., Turak, E., and Williams,
D. M., 2005. Changes in algal, coral and fish assemblages along
water quality gradients on the inshore Great Barrier Reef.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51, 384–398.
Fabricius, K., Wild, C., Wolanski, E., and Abele, D., 2003. Effects
of transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and muddy terrigenous sediments on the survival of hard coral recruits. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 57, 613–621.
Gibbs, R. J., Matthew, M. D., and Link, D. A., 1971. The relation
between sphere size and settling velocity. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 41, 7–18.
Hallock, P., 1988. The role of nutrient availability in bioerosion:
consequences to carbonate buildups. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 63, 275–291.
NUTRIENT POLLUTION/EUTROPHICATION
729