Gourlay, M. R., 1994. Wave transformation on a coral reef. Coastal
Engineering, 23, 17–42.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996a. Wave set-up on coral reefs. 1. Set-up and
wave-generated flow on an idealized two dimensional horizontal
reef. Coastal Engineering, 27, 161–193.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996b. Wave set-up on coral reefs. 2. Set-up on
reefs with various profiles. Coastal Engineering, 28, 17–55.
Gourlay, M. R., and Colleter, G., 2005. Wave-generated flow on
coral reefs-an analysis for two-dimensional horizontal reef-top
with steep faces. Coastal Engineering, 52, 353–387.
Gunatilaka, A., Saleh, A., Al-Temimi, A., and Nassar, N., 1984.
Occurrence of subtidal dolomite in a hypersaline lagoon,
Kuwait. Nature, 311, 450–452.
Hearn, C. J., and Parker, I. N., 1988. Hydrodynamic processes on
the Ningaloo coral reef, Western Australia. In Proceedings 6th
International Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia, 2,
497–502.
Kench, P., 1994. Hydrodynamic observations of the Cocos
(Keeling) Island lagoon. Atoll Research Bulletin, 408, 1–21.
Kinsman, D. J. J., 1969. Models of formation, sedimentary associations and diagnostic features of shallow water and supratidal
evaporates. American Association of Petroleum and Geologists
Bulletin, 53, 830–840.
Ludington, C. A., 1979. Tidal modifications and associated circulation in a platform reef lagoon. Australian Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research, 30, 425–430.
Lugo-Fernández A., Roberts, H. H., Wiseman, W. J., Jr., Carter,
B. L., 1998. Water level and currents of tidal and infragravity
periods at Tague Reef, St. Croix (USVI). Coral Reefs, 17,
343–349.
Lugo-Fernández, A., Roberts, H. H., Wiseman, W. J., Jr., 2004. Currents, water levels, and mass transport over a modern Caribbean
coral reef: Tague Reef, St. Croix, USVI. Continental Shelf
Research, 24(17), 1989–2009.
Marsh, J. A., Ross, R. M., and Zolan, W. J., 1981. Water circulation
on two Guam reef flats. In Proceedings 4th International Coral
Reef Symposium 1, University of Philippines, pp. 355–360.
Massel, S. R., and Brinkman, R. M., 2001. Wave-induced set-up
and flow over shoals and coral reefs: Part 1. A simplified bottom
geometry case. Oceanologia, 43, 373–388.
Meshal, A. H., 1987. Hydrography of a hypersaline coastal lagoon
in the Red Sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 24,
167–175.
Monismith, S. G., Genin, A., Reidenbach, M. A., Yahel, G., and
Koseff, J. R., 2006. Thermally Driven Exchanges between
a Coral Reef and the Adjoining Ocean. Journal of Physical
Oceanography, 36, 1332–1347.
Munk, W. H., and Sargent, M. C., 1948. Adjustment of Bikini Atoll
to ocean waves. Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 29,
855–860.
Pickard, G. L., 1986. Effects of wind and tide on upper-layer currents at Davies Reef, Greater Barrier Reef, during Mecor (JulyAugust, 1984). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research, 37, 545–565.
Roberts, H. H., 1980. Physical processes and sediment flux through
reef-lagoon systems. In Proceedings of the 17th Coastal Engineering Conference, Sydney, Australia, pp. 946–962.
Roberts, H. H., and Suhayda, J. N., 1983. Wave-current interactions
on a shallow reef (Nicaragua, Central America). Coral Reefs, 1,
209–214.
Storlazzi, C. D., Ogston, A. S., Bothner, M. H., Field, M. E., and
Presto, M. K., 2004. Wave- and tidally-driven flow and sediment
flux across a fringing coral reef: Southern Molokai, Hawaii.
Continental Shelf Research, 24, 1397–1419.
Symonds, G., Black, K. P., and Young, I. R., 1995. Wave-driven
flow over shallow reef. Journal of Geophysical Research,
100(C2), 2639–2648.
Tamura, H., Nadaoka, K., Paringit, E. C., 2007. Hydrodynamic
characteristics of a fringing coral reef on the east coast of
Ishigaki Island, southwest Japan. Coral Reefs, 26, 17–34.
von Arx, W. S., 1948. The circulation systems of Bikini and
Rongelap lagoons. Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
29, 861–870.
Wolanski, E., 1994. Physical Oceanographic Processes of the Great
Barrier Reef. Boca Raton, USA: CRV Press.
Yamano, H., Kayanne, H., Yonekura, N., Nakamura, H., and Kudo,
K., 1998. Water circulation in a fringing reef located in
a monsoon area: Kabira Reef, Ishigaki Island, Southwest Japan.
Coral Reefs, 17, 89–99.
Cross-references
Atolls
Hydrodynamics of Coral Reef Systems
Lagoons
Sediment Dynamics
Tidal Effects on Coral Reefs
Wave Set-Up
Waves and Wave-Driven Currents
LAGOONS
David Hopley
James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
Fully or partly enclosed depressions in coral reefs are
common. They range in depth from 1 or 2 m to > 90 m
with the largest occurring in atolls, e.g., Kwajalein (Marshall Islands) 120 Â 32 km or Rangiroa (Tuamotu)
79 Â 34 km. They have many origins including the
following:
Shallow moats behind reef flat rubble banks
“Boat channels” a few metres deep behind a fringing
reef attached to the shore
Deeper lagoons behind reefal rims around volcanic
islands as in the Darwinian sequence
Shelf reef lagoons of probable karst inheritance (Purdy,
1974) but with some Holocene growth to the rim (see
Reef Classification by Hopley (1982)). These reefs
and their lagoons can be > 100 km
2 in area (e.g.,
Hopley, 2006)
Extensive lagoons of atolls some of which may be
entirely closed off from the ocean. Purdy and Winterer
(2001) have shown that only about 10 m of lagoon rim
relief in these largest of lagoons (> 250 km
2
) is the result
of reef growth, the remainder (> 20 m) is due to dissolution over several glacial/interglacial cycles and only
a small amount due to subsidence
Depressions resembling karst but originating from the
rapid Acropora dominated growth (> 6 m/ka) from
patch and reticulated foundations and including collapse of depression walls (Wyrwoll et al., 2006)
All types are sediment sinks and for fringing reefs terrigenous sediments may dominate the lagoon floor. In terms of
LAGOONS
617
Engineering, 23, 17–42.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996a. Wave set-up on coral reefs. 1. Set-up and
wave-generated flow on an idealized two dimensional horizontal
reef. Coastal Engineering, 27, 161–193.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996b. Wave set-up on coral reefs. 2. Set-up on
reefs with various profiles. Coastal Engineering, 28, 17–55.
Gourlay, M. R., and Colleter, G., 2005. Wave-generated flow on
coral reefs-an analysis for two-dimensional horizontal reef-top
with steep faces. Coastal Engineering, 52, 353–387.
Gunatilaka, A., Saleh, A., Al-Temimi, A., and Nassar, N., 1984.
Occurrence of subtidal dolomite in a hypersaline lagoon,
Kuwait. Nature, 311, 450–452.
Hearn, C. J., and Parker, I. N., 1988. Hydrodynamic processes on
the Ningaloo coral reef, Western Australia. In Proceedings 6th
International Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia, 2,
497–502.
Kench, P., 1994. Hydrodynamic observations of the Cocos
(Keeling) Island lagoon. Atoll Research Bulletin, 408, 1–21.
Kinsman, D. J. J., 1969. Models of formation, sedimentary associations and diagnostic features of shallow water and supratidal
evaporates. American Association of Petroleum and Geologists
Bulletin, 53, 830–840.
Ludington, C. A., 1979. Tidal modifications and associated circulation in a platform reef lagoon. Australian Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research, 30, 425–430.
Lugo-Fernández A., Roberts, H. H., Wiseman, W. J., Jr., Carter,
B. L., 1998. Water level and currents of tidal and infragravity
periods at Tague Reef, St. Croix (USVI). Coral Reefs, 17,
343–349.
Lugo-Fernández, A., Roberts, H. H., Wiseman, W. J., Jr., 2004. Currents, water levels, and mass transport over a modern Caribbean
coral reef: Tague Reef, St. Croix, USVI. Continental Shelf
Research, 24(17), 1989–2009.
Marsh, J. A., Ross, R. M., and Zolan, W. J., 1981. Water circulation
on two Guam reef flats. In Proceedings 4th International Coral
Reef Symposium 1, University of Philippines, pp. 355–360.
Massel, S. R., and Brinkman, R. M., 2001. Wave-induced set-up
and flow over shoals and coral reefs: Part 1. A simplified bottom
geometry case. Oceanologia, 43, 373–388.
Meshal, A. H., 1987. Hydrography of a hypersaline coastal lagoon
in the Red Sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 24,
167–175.
Monismith, S. G., Genin, A., Reidenbach, M. A., Yahel, G., and
Koseff, J. R., 2006. Thermally Driven Exchanges between
a Coral Reef and the Adjoining Ocean. Journal of Physical
Oceanography, 36, 1332–1347.
Munk, W. H., and Sargent, M. C., 1948. Adjustment of Bikini Atoll
to ocean waves. Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 29,
855–860.
Pickard, G. L., 1986. Effects of wind and tide on upper-layer currents at Davies Reef, Greater Barrier Reef, during Mecor (JulyAugust, 1984). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research, 37, 545–565.
Roberts, H. H., 1980. Physical processes and sediment flux through
reef-lagoon systems. In Proceedings of the 17th Coastal Engineering Conference, Sydney, Australia, pp. 946–962.
Roberts, H. H., and Suhayda, J. N., 1983. Wave-current interactions
on a shallow reef (Nicaragua, Central America). Coral Reefs, 1,
209–214.
Storlazzi, C. D., Ogston, A. S., Bothner, M. H., Field, M. E., and
Presto, M. K., 2004. Wave- and tidally-driven flow and sediment
flux across a fringing coral reef: Southern Molokai, Hawaii.
Continental Shelf Research, 24, 1397–1419.
Symonds, G., Black, K. P., and Young, I. R., 1995. Wave-driven
flow over shallow reef. Journal of Geophysical Research,
100(C2), 2639–2648.
Tamura, H., Nadaoka, K., Paringit, E. C., 2007. Hydrodynamic
characteristics of a fringing coral reef on the east coast of
Ishigaki Island, southwest Japan. Coral Reefs, 26, 17–34.
von Arx, W. S., 1948. The circulation systems of Bikini and
Rongelap lagoons. Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
29, 861–870.
Wolanski, E., 1994. Physical Oceanographic Processes of the Great
Barrier Reef. Boca Raton, USA: CRV Press.
Yamano, H., Kayanne, H., Yonekura, N., Nakamura, H., and Kudo,
K., 1998. Water circulation in a fringing reef located in
a monsoon area: Kabira Reef, Ishigaki Island, Southwest Japan.
Coral Reefs, 17, 89–99.
Cross-references
Atolls
Hydrodynamics of Coral Reef Systems
Lagoons
Sediment Dynamics
Tidal Effects on Coral Reefs
Wave Set-Up
Waves and Wave-Driven Currents
LAGOONS
David Hopley
James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
Fully or partly enclosed depressions in coral reefs are
common. They range in depth from 1 or 2 m to > 90 m
with the largest occurring in atolls, e.g., Kwajalein (Marshall Islands) 120 Â 32 km or Rangiroa (Tuamotu)
79 Â 34 km. They have many origins including the
following:
Shallow moats behind reef flat rubble banks
“Boat channels” a few metres deep behind a fringing
reef attached to the shore
Deeper lagoons behind reefal rims around volcanic
islands as in the Darwinian sequence
Shelf reef lagoons of probable karst inheritance (Purdy,
1974) but with some Holocene growth to the rim (see
Reef Classification by Hopley (1982)). These reefs
and their lagoons can be > 100 km
2 in area (e.g.,
Hopley, 2006)
Extensive lagoons of atolls some of which may be
entirely closed off from the ocean. Purdy and Winterer
(2001) have shown that only about 10 m of lagoon rim
relief in these largest of lagoons (> 250 km
2
) is the result
of reef growth, the remainder (> 20 m) is due to dissolution over several glacial/interglacial cycles and only
a small amount due to subsidence
Depressions resembling karst but originating from the
rapid Acropora dominated growth (> 6 m/ka) from
patch and reticulated foundations and including collapse of depression walls (Wyrwoll et al., 2006)
All types are sediment sinks and for fringing reefs terrigenous sediments may dominate the lagoon floor. In terms of
LAGOONS
617