country. All major morphological forms of coral reef occur
in Indonesian waters: atolls, barrier, fringing, platform, as
well as coral communities (not building reefs), and incipient
coral reefs. Many of the major barrier reefs are submerged
structures that rise to depths of 15–10 m from near the
200 m isobath, reflecting their former existence as fringing
reefs during periods of low sea level, brought to an end by
the 120 m rise in sea level following the last glacial maximum, 18–17 kya. Most, if not all, “atolls” occur on seafloor highs whose geology is not known, but is likely in
most cases not to be volcanic. In Indonesia, atoll forms
may, therefore, be better described as lagoonal platform
reefs. Volcanic islands are extremely abundant, many with
good reef development, but many also too active and/or
too young to have permitted substantial reef development.
There are abundant raised fossil reef terraces across the
country, a result of upward displacement of islands by subduction beneath them of the Indian Ocean plate, by Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level fluctuations, and by seismic
uplift. There are large and thriving modern reefs in both
the deep eastern and shallow western parts of Indonesia’s
enclosed seas, as well as along the south and westward
shores facing the Indian Ocean. The biodiversity of
Indonesia’s reefs – the highest of anywhere in the world –
represents the overlap of four types of distributions: Indian
Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian plus Pacific Ocean, and
endemics (Wallace and Wolstenholme, 1998; Hoeksema,
2007). These overlaps are believed to be outcomes of geological history, sea-level fluctuations, and the barrier to west
to east dispersal provided by the Indonesian Throughflow,
which moves five times as much water from east to west
than in the opposite direction (Gordon et al., 2003). Current
reef diversity and productivity are sustained by an
extremely complex physical and oceanographic setting.
Bibiliography
Anon, 2009. Indonesian National Plan of Action, Coral Triangle
Initiative. National Secretariat CTI-CFF Indonesia, 52 pp.
Barber, P. H., Palumbi, S. R., Erdmann, M. V., and Moosa, M. K.,
2000. Biogeography. A marine Wallace’s line? Nature, 406,
692–693.
Briggs, R.W., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A. J., Natawidjaja, D., Galezka, J.,
Suwargad, B., Hsu, Y., Simons, M., Hananto, N., Suprihanto, I.,
Prayudi, D., Avouac, J. P., Prawirodirdjo, L., and Bock, Y., 2006.
Deformation and slip along the Sunda Megathrust in the great
2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake. Science, 311, 1897–1901.
Burke, L., Selig, E., and Spalding, M., 2002. Reefs at Risk in South
East Asia. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 72 pp.
Campbell, S. J., Pratchett, M. S., Anggoto, A. W., Ardiwijaya, R. L.,
Fadli, N., Heroliana, Y., Kartawijaya, T., Mahyiddin, D.,
Mukminin, A., Pardede, S. T., Rudi, E., Siregar, A. M. and Baird,
A. H., 2007. Disturbance to coral reefs in Aceh, northern Sumatra: impacts of the Sumatra-Andaman tsunami and pre-tsunami
degradation. Atoll Research Bulletin, 544, 55–78.
Chappell, J., and Veeh, H. H., 1978. Late Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes at Timor and Atauro Island. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 89, 356–368.
Dahuri, R., Kusumastanto, T., Hantoro, A., Anas, P., and Hartono,
P., 2009. Enhancing Sustainable Ocean Development: An Indonesian Experience. Indonesia: An-Nada Press, 224 pp.
DeVantier, L. M., Suharsono, Budiyanto, A., Tuti, J., Imanto, P., and
Ledesma, R., 1995. Status of coral communities of Pulau Seribu
1985–1995. In Soemodihardjo, S. (ed.), Proceedings: Coral
Reef Evaluation Workshop. Pulau Seribu, Jakarta, Indonesia.
11–20 September 1995. UNESCO and the Indonesian Institute
of Sciences (LIPI) Research and Development Center for Oceanography, 1–12.
Djohani, R., Mous, P., and Pet, J., 1999. Status of the coral reefs in
and around Komodo National Park 1996–98. The Nature Conservancy (Unpublished Report), 21 pp.
Done, T. J., Ogden, J. C., Wiebe, W. J., and Rosen, B. R, 1996. Biodiversity and ecosystem function of coral reefs. In Mooney,
H. A., Cushman, J. H., Medina, E., Sala, O. E., and Schultze,
E-D. (eds.), Functional Roles of Biodiversity: A Global Perspective, Chapter 15. Chichester, England: Wiley, pp. 393–429.
Edinger, E. N., Kolasa, J., and Risk, M. J., 2000. Biogeographic variation in coral species diversity on coral reefs in three regions of
Indonesia. Diversity and Distributions, 6, 113–127.
Gordon, A. L., Susanto, D., and Vranes, K., 2003. Cool Indonesian
throughflow as a consequence of restricted surface layer flow.
Nature, 425, 824–828.
Grigg, R. W., 1982. Darwin Point: a threshold for atoll formation.
Coral Reefs, 1, 29–34.
Hagan, A. B., Foster, R., Perera, N., Gunawan, C. J., Siliban, I.,
Yaha, Y., Manuputty, Y., Hazam, I., and Hodgson, G., 2007. Tsunami impacts on Aceh Province and North Sumatra, Indonesia.
Atoll Research Bulletin, 544, 37–54.
Hantoro, W. S., Pirazolli, P. A., Jouannic, C., Faure, H., Hoang,
C. T., Causse C., Borel Best, M., Lafonte, R., Bieda, S., and
Lambeck, K., 1994. Quaternary uplifted coral reef terraces on
Alor Island, East Indonesia. Coral Reefs, 13, 215–223.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hoegh-Guldberg, H., Veron, J. E. N., Green,
A., Gomez, E. D., Lough, J., King, M., Ambariyanto, Hansen,
L., Cinner, J., Dews, G., Russ, G., Schuttenberg, H. Z., Peñafl
or, E. L., Eakin, C. M., Christensen, T. R. L., Abbey, M., Areki,
F., Kosaka, R. A., Tewfi k, A., and Oliver, J., 2009. The Coral
Triangle and Climate Change: Ecosystems, People and Societies
at Risk. Brisbane, Australia: WWF, 276 pp.
Hoeksema, B. W., 2007. Delinieation of the Indo-Malayan centre of
maximum marine biodiversity: the coral triangle. In Renema, W.
(ed.), Biography, Time and Place: Distributions, Barriers and
Islands. The Netherlands: Springer, 117–178.
Hutomo, M., and Moosa, M. K., 2005. Indonesian marine and
coastal biodiversity: present status. Indian Journal of Marine
Science, 34, 88–97.
Nontji, A., 2002. Coral reefs of Indonesia: past, present and future.
Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium,
Vol. 1, pp. 17–27.
Oke, P. R., Schiller, A., Griffin, D. A., and Brassington, G. B., 2005.
Ensemble data assimilation for an eddy-resolving ocean model
of the Australian region. Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorolgical Society, 131, 3301–3311.
Pirazzoli, P. A., Radtke, U., Hantoro, W. S., Jouannic, C., Hoang,
C. T., Causse, C., and Borel Best, M., 1991. Quaternary raised
coral-reef terraces on Sumba, Indonesia. Science, 252, 1834–
1836.
Purdy, E. G., and Winterer, E. L., 2000. Origin of atoll lagoons.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113, 837–854.
Richmond, B. M., Jaffe, B. E., Gelfenbaum, G., and Morton, R. A.,
2006. Geologic impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Z. Geomorphologie.
N.F. Suplementary-Volume, 146, 235–251.
Spalding, M. D., Ravilious, C., and Green, E. P., 2001. World Atlas
of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,
424 pp.
Starger, C. J., Barber, P. H., Ambariyanto, and Baker, A. C., 2010.
The recovery of coral genetic diversity in the Sunda Strait
600
INDONESIAN REEFS
in Indonesian waters: atolls, barrier, fringing, platform, as
well as coral communities (not building reefs), and incipient
coral reefs. Many of the major barrier reefs are submerged
structures that rise to depths of 15–10 m from near the
200 m isobath, reflecting their former existence as fringing
reefs during periods of low sea level, brought to an end by
the 120 m rise in sea level following the last glacial maximum, 18–17 kya. Most, if not all, “atolls” occur on seafloor highs whose geology is not known, but is likely in
most cases not to be volcanic. In Indonesia, atoll forms
may, therefore, be better described as lagoonal platform
reefs. Volcanic islands are extremely abundant, many with
good reef development, but many also too active and/or
too young to have permitted substantial reef development.
There are abundant raised fossil reef terraces across the
country, a result of upward displacement of islands by subduction beneath them of the Indian Ocean plate, by Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level fluctuations, and by seismic
uplift. There are large and thriving modern reefs in both
the deep eastern and shallow western parts of Indonesia’s
enclosed seas, as well as along the south and westward
shores facing the Indian Ocean. The biodiversity of
Indonesia’s reefs – the highest of anywhere in the world –
represents the overlap of four types of distributions: Indian
Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian plus Pacific Ocean, and
endemics (Wallace and Wolstenholme, 1998; Hoeksema,
2007). These overlaps are believed to be outcomes of geological history, sea-level fluctuations, and the barrier to west
to east dispersal provided by the Indonesian Throughflow,
which moves five times as much water from east to west
than in the opposite direction (Gordon et al., 2003). Current
reef diversity and productivity are sustained by an
extremely complex physical and oceanographic setting.
Bibiliography
Anon, 2009. Indonesian National Plan of Action, Coral Triangle
Initiative. National Secretariat CTI-CFF Indonesia, 52 pp.
Barber, P. H., Palumbi, S. R., Erdmann, M. V., and Moosa, M. K.,
2000. Biogeography. A marine Wallace’s line? Nature, 406,
692–693.
Briggs, R.W., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A. J., Natawidjaja, D., Galezka, J.,
Suwargad, B., Hsu, Y., Simons, M., Hananto, N., Suprihanto, I.,
Prayudi, D., Avouac, J. P., Prawirodirdjo, L., and Bock, Y., 2006.
Deformation and slip along the Sunda Megathrust in the great
2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake. Science, 311, 1897–1901.
Burke, L., Selig, E., and Spalding, M., 2002. Reefs at Risk in South
East Asia. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 72 pp.
Campbell, S. J., Pratchett, M. S., Anggoto, A. W., Ardiwijaya, R. L.,
Fadli, N., Heroliana, Y., Kartawijaya, T., Mahyiddin, D.,
Mukminin, A., Pardede, S. T., Rudi, E., Siregar, A. M. and Baird,
A. H., 2007. Disturbance to coral reefs in Aceh, northern Sumatra: impacts of the Sumatra-Andaman tsunami and pre-tsunami
degradation. Atoll Research Bulletin, 544, 55–78.
Chappell, J., and Veeh, H. H., 1978. Late Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes at Timor and Atauro Island. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 89, 356–368.
Dahuri, R., Kusumastanto, T., Hantoro, A., Anas, P., and Hartono,
P., 2009. Enhancing Sustainable Ocean Development: An Indonesian Experience. Indonesia: An-Nada Press, 224 pp.
DeVantier, L. M., Suharsono, Budiyanto, A., Tuti, J., Imanto, P., and
Ledesma, R., 1995. Status of coral communities of Pulau Seribu
1985–1995. In Soemodihardjo, S. (ed.), Proceedings: Coral
Reef Evaluation Workshop. Pulau Seribu, Jakarta, Indonesia.
11–20 September 1995. UNESCO and the Indonesian Institute
of Sciences (LIPI) Research and Development Center for Oceanography, 1–12.
Djohani, R., Mous, P., and Pet, J., 1999. Status of the coral reefs in
and around Komodo National Park 1996–98. The Nature Conservancy (Unpublished Report), 21 pp.
Done, T. J., Ogden, J. C., Wiebe, W. J., and Rosen, B. R, 1996. Biodiversity and ecosystem function of coral reefs. In Mooney,
H. A., Cushman, J. H., Medina, E., Sala, O. E., and Schultze,
E-D. (eds.), Functional Roles of Biodiversity: A Global Perspective, Chapter 15. Chichester, England: Wiley, pp. 393–429.
Edinger, E. N., Kolasa, J., and Risk, M. J., 2000. Biogeographic variation in coral species diversity on coral reefs in three regions of
Indonesia. Diversity and Distributions, 6, 113–127.
Gordon, A. L., Susanto, D., and Vranes, K., 2003. Cool Indonesian
throughflow as a consequence of restricted surface layer flow.
Nature, 425, 824–828.
Grigg, R. W., 1982. Darwin Point: a threshold for atoll formation.
Coral Reefs, 1, 29–34.
Hagan, A. B., Foster, R., Perera, N., Gunawan, C. J., Siliban, I.,
Yaha, Y., Manuputty, Y., Hazam, I., and Hodgson, G., 2007. Tsunami impacts on Aceh Province and North Sumatra, Indonesia.
Atoll Research Bulletin, 544, 37–54.
Hantoro, W. S., Pirazolli, P. A., Jouannic, C., Faure, H., Hoang,
C. T., Causse C., Borel Best, M., Lafonte, R., Bieda, S., and
Lambeck, K., 1994. Quaternary uplifted coral reef terraces on
Alor Island, East Indonesia. Coral Reefs, 13, 215–223.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hoegh-Guldberg, H., Veron, J. E. N., Green,
A., Gomez, E. D., Lough, J., King, M., Ambariyanto, Hansen,
L., Cinner, J., Dews, G., Russ, G., Schuttenberg, H. Z., Peñafl
or, E. L., Eakin, C. M., Christensen, T. R. L., Abbey, M., Areki,
F., Kosaka, R. A., Tewfi k, A., and Oliver, J., 2009. The Coral
Triangle and Climate Change: Ecosystems, People and Societies
at Risk. Brisbane, Australia: WWF, 276 pp.
Hoeksema, B. W., 2007. Delinieation of the Indo-Malayan centre of
maximum marine biodiversity: the coral triangle. In Renema, W.
(ed.), Biography, Time and Place: Distributions, Barriers and
Islands. The Netherlands: Springer, 117–178.
Hutomo, M., and Moosa, M. K., 2005. Indonesian marine and
coastal biodiversity: present status. Indian Journal of Marine
Science, 34, 88–97.
Nontji, A., 2002. Coral reefs of Indonesia: past, present and future.
Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium,
Vol. 1, pp. 17–27.
Oke, P. R., Schiller, A., Griffin, D. A., and Brassington, G. B., 2005.
Ensemble data assimilation for an eddy-resolving ocean model
of the Australian region. Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorolgical Society, 131, 3301–3311.
Pirazzoli, P. A., Radtke, U., Hantoro, W. S., Jouannic, C., Hoang,
C. T., Causse, C., and Borel Best, M., 1991. Quaternary raised
coral-reef terraces on Sumba, Indonesia. Science, 252, 1834–
1836.
Purdy, E. G., and Winterer, E. L., 2000. Origin of atoll lagoons.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113, 837–854.
Richmond, B. M., Jaffe, B. E., Gelfenbaum, G., and Morton, R. A.,
2006. Geologic impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Z. Geomorphologie.
N.F. Suplementary-Volume, 146, 235–251.
Spalding, M. D., Ravilious, C., and Green, E. P., 2001. World Atlas
of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,
424 pp.
Starger, C. J., Barber, P. H., Ambariyanto, and Baker, A. C., 2010.
The recovery of coral genetic diversity in the Sunda Strait
600
INDONESIAN REEFS