(690 km
2
), and Kakaban (21 km
2
). The latter two have
raised limestone rims up to 120 m above sea level.
Sulawesi
The island of Sulawesi (coastline 4,750 km), probably has
the largest coral-reef area in Indonesia. A very high proportion of its coastline and offshore islands is fringed with
reefs often $200 m wide. Tomascik et al. (1997) describe
34 individual barrier reefs around the islands with a total
length of 2,084 km, that is, bordering 43% of Sulawesi’s
coastline, and of which eight are more than 100 km long.
These very long barrier reefs are submerged over most
of their lengths, but many shorter ones a few kilometers
offshore of islands are classic intertidal reefs separated
from the shore by navigable lagoons (see entry Coral Reef,
Definition). The Spermonde Archipelago comprises some
small-platform reefs with cays, many submerged platform
reefs, and a fragmented submerged barrier reef that lies
45–65 km offshore. There are also long submerged barrier
reefs running eastwards from the volcanic Togian Islands
(165 km) and along the southern margins of the Banggai
Islands (175 km), including faro reefs similar to those
found in the Maldives. Tomascik et al. (1997) describe
27 “atolls” in the waters around Sulawesi, though it is
doubtful whether many have developed from volcanic
foundations. There are numerous submerged reefs and
a further 27 “oceanic” or “platform” reefs at the sea surface,
including open-water reefs associated with continental (not
always volcanic) islands. They occur in clusters around to
the southwest and west of Makassar, the south of Teluk
Bone (including World Heritage-nominated Taka Bone
Rate), and the southeast, where there is a group of reeffringed high islands known collectively as Wakatobi (Pulau
Wangiwangi; P. Kaledupa; P. Tomea; P. Binongko).
Bali and Nusa Tenggara
These islands are all part of one of the world’s most active
volcanic island arcs, formed at a tectonic plate subduction
zone. Fringing reefs are ubiquitous, their morphologies
depending on the geomorphology of the coastline and
the tectonic history of the islands. Many are narrow structures 30–100 m wide with an intertidal reef flat and very
sharp seaward drop-off. However, much wider reefs are
also present. For example, around Bali, van Woesik
(1997) indicates the fringing reefs extend 500 m from
the shoreline. There are also well-developed reefs at
Komodo National Park (Djohani et al., 1999) and
Lembata Island, with three active volcanoes (Tomascik
et al., 1997). Discontinuous fringing reefs with welldeveloped spur and groove systems occur along the high
energy southern shore of the Nusa Tengarra islands. On
the more sheltered western and north-western sides facing
the Flores Sea, the reefs are more continuous and up to
800 m wide, with dense growth of sea grasses on the flats.
Some nine barrier reefs are listed by Tomascik et al.
(1997) in this region, though some are very close to shore
and difficult to differentiate from fringing reefs with “boat
channels.” At least a third of the north coast of Flores is bordered by such a barrier with other significant barriers on
both north and south coasts of Sumbawa and the north coast
of Lombok. No open water reefs are found to the south of
the island arc, probably because of the great depth of water.
There are only two in the Flores/Banda Sea area off the
northern shores of Flores (Karang Serbete and Gosong
Boni).
Maluku
The coral reefs of Maluku are regarded as the biologically
richest in the world (Hoeksema, 2007). Fringing reefs
thrive in the turbid waters of the Aru Islands, which consist of six main islands and 79 smaller islands separated
by long narrow channels. Major fringing-reef development is along the shallow east coast where the reef can
be up to 1.5 km wide, but narrower reefs are found along
the remaining coastlines, except the southern part of the
west coast. There are 15 reported barrier reefs with
a total length of 425 km, but so little of this area has been
surveyed in detail that this is probably an underestimate.
They are associated with the islands of Morotai, Halmahera, Seram, Gorong, Kofiau, Obimayor, Batanme, Nila,
and Tanimbar. Open water reefs, very few if any of which
are true atolls, are found in the Banda Sea (Kepaluan
Lucipara and Kep. Penyu), and to the south and east of
Halmahera.
West Papua
West Papua, with a coastline length of 4,200 km, remains
one of the least studied areas in Indonesia. Because of high
run-off and sediment yield, fringing reefs are missing from
significant sections of the coastline, but in other places,
fringing reefs appear to be very continuous. Tomascik
et al. (1997) suggested the following as the major areas:
The north coast from Jayapura to the border
Jayapura to Tg. Kandara, where the reefs are 300–400 m
wide and westwards to Sarmi
All the islands of Cenderawasih Bay, 50–100 m wide
On the south coast west of the Omba River
The southern side of the “Bird’s Neck” between
Lakahia Bay and Kamarau Bay
Between Tg. Tongerai and Tg. Kirana, the coastlines
along the foothills of Kumafa and Fakfak Mountains,
and
The northern side of the “Bird’s Head,” which appears
to be suitable for fringing reefs.
More recent studies have more than verified Tomascik
et al.’s predictions. For example, more than 500 species
of reef building corals have been reported at Raja Ampat
(Turak and DeVantier, 2003), making it “the most diverse
area of the Indo-Pacific” on record for corals.
Summary
Indonesia’s territorial seas are the world’s largest contiguous coral reef domain under the sovereignty of a single
INDONESIAN REEFS
599
2
), and Kakaban (21 km
2
). The latter two have
raised limestone rims up to 120 m above sea level.
Sulawesi
The island of Sulawesi (coastline 4,750 km), probably has
the largest coral-reef area in Indonesia. A very high proportion of its coastline and offshore islands is fringed with
reefs often $200 m wide. Tomascik et al. (1997) describe
34 individual barrier reefs around the islands with a total
length of 2,084 km, that is, bordering 43% of Sulawesi’s
coastline, and of which eight are more than 100 km long.
These very long barrier reefs are submerged over most
of their lengths, but many shorter ones a few kilometers
offshore of islands are classic intertidal reefs separated
from the shore by navigable lagoons (see entry Coral Reef,
Definition). The Spermonde Archipelago comprises some
small-platform reefs with cays, many submerged platform
reefs, and a fragmented submerged barrier reef that lies
45–65 km offshore. There are also long submerged barrier
reefs running eastwards from the volcanic Togian Islands
(165 km) and along the southern margins of the Banggai
Islands (175 km), including faro reefs similar to those
found in the Maldives. Tomascik et al. (1997) describe
27 “atolls” in the waters around Sulawesi, though it is
doubtful whether many have developed from volcanic
foundations. There are numerous submerged reefs and
a further 27 “oceanic” or “platform” reefs at the sea surface,
including open-water reefs associated with continental (not
always volcanic) islands. They occur in clusters around to
the southwest and west of Makassar, the south of Teluk
Bone (including World Heritage-nominated Taka Bone
Rate), and the southeast, where there is a group of reeffringed high islands known collectively as Wakatobi (Pulau
Wangiwangi; P. Kaledupa; P. Tomea; P. Binongko).
Bali and Nusa Tenggara
These islands are all part of one of the world’s most active
volcanic island arcs, formed at a tectonic plate subduction
zone. Fringing reefs are ubiquitous, their morphologies
depending on the geomorphology of the coastline and
the tectonic history of the islands. Many are narrow structures 30–100 m wide with an intertidal reef flat and very
sharp seaward drop-off. However, much wider reefs are
also present. For example, around Bali, van Woesik
(1997) indicates the fringing reefs extend 500 m from
the shoreline. There are also well-developed reefs at
Komodo National Park (Djohani et al., 1999) and
Lembata Island, with three active volcanoes (Tomascik
et al., 1997). Discontinuous fringing reefs with welldeveloped spur and groove systems occur along the high
energy southern shore of the Nusa Tengarra islands. On
the more sheltered western and north-western sides facing
the Flores Sea, the reefs are more continuous and up to
800 m wide, with dense growth of sea grasses on the flats.
Some nine barrier reefs are listed by Tomascik et al.
(1997) in this region, though some are very close to shore
and difficult to differentiate from fringing reefs with “boat
channels.” At least a third of the north coast of Flores is bordered by such a barrier with other significant barriers on
both north and south coasts of Sumbawa and the north coast
of Lombok. No open water reefs are found to the south of
the island arc, probably because of the great depth of water.
There are only two in the Flores/Banda Sea area off the
northern shores of Flores (Karang Serbete and Gosong
Boni).
Maluku
The coral reefs of Maluku are regarded as the biologically
richest in the world (Hoeksema, 2007). Fringing reefs
thrive in the turbid waters of the Aru Islands, which consist of six main islands and 79 smaller islands separated
by long narrow channels. Major fringing-reef development is along the shallow east coast where the reef can
be up to 1.5 km wide, but narrower reefs are found along
the remaining coastlines, except the southern part of the
west coast. There are 15 reported barrier reefs with
a total length of 425 km, but so little of this area has been
surveyed in detail that this is probably an underestimate.
They are associated with the islands of Morotai, Halmahera, Seram, Gorong, Kofiau, Obimayor, Batanme, Nila,
and Tanimbar. Open water reefs, very few if any of which
are true atolls, are found in the Banda Sea (Kepaluan
Lucipara and Kep. Penyu), and to the south and east of
Halmahera.
West Papua
West Papua, with a coastline length of 4,200 km, remains
one of the least studied areas in Indonesia. Because of high
run-off and sediment yield, fringing reefs are missing from
significant sections of the coastline, but in other places,
fringing reefs appear to be very continuous. Tomascik
et al. (1997) suggested the following as the major areas:
The north coast from Jayapura to the border
Jayapura to Tg. Kandara, where the reefs are 300–400 m
wide and westwards to Sarmi
All the islands of Cenderawasih Bay, 50–100 m wide
On the south coast west of the Omba River
The southern side of the “Bird’s Neck” between
Lakahia Bay and Kamarau Bay
Between Tg. Tongerai and Tg. Kirana, the coastlines
along the foothills of Kumafa and Fakfak Mountains,
and
The northern side of the “Bird’s Head,” which appears
to be suitable for fringing reefs.
More recent studies have more than verified Tomascik
et al.’s predictions. For example, more than 500 species
of reef building corals have been reported at Raja Ampat
(Turak and DeVantier, 2003), making it “the most diverse
area of the Indo-Pacific” on record for corals.
Summary
Indonesia’s territorial seas are the world’s largest contiguous coral reef domain under the sovereignty of a single
INDONESIAN REEFS
599