Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1994. Plant life of the deep ocean
realm. Biologie in Unserer Zeit, 24(6), 330–335 [In German].
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1995. CLOD spreading in the seasurface microlayer: response. Science, 270, 897.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1997. Disease-induced mass mortality of crustose coralline algae on coral reefs provides rationale
for the conservation of herbivorous fish stocks. In Proceedings
of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama,
pp. 719–724.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1998. An undescribed fungal pathogen of reef-forming crustose coralline algae discovered in
American Samoa. Coral Reefs, 17(2), 144.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1999. Castles built by a chiton from
the Great Astrolabe Reef, Fiji. Coral Reefs, 18(2), 146.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 2007. Assessment of coral reefs
using herbivory/nutrient assays and indicator groups of benthic
primary producers: a critical synthesis, proposed protocols, and
critique of management strategies. Aquatic Conservation:
Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 17, 195–215.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Brooks, B. L., 2007. Target phenomena on south Pacific reefs: strip harvesting by prudent pathogens? Reef Encounter, 34, 23–24.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Hanisak, M. D. 1991. Deep-water
rhodolith distribution, productivity and growth history at sites of
formation and subsequent degradation. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 91, 1–20.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Taylor, P. R., 1995. Selective herbivore increases biomass of its prey: a chiton-coralline reefbuilding association. Ecology, 76(5), 1661–1681.
Ohde, S., 1995. Calcium carbonate production and carbon dioxide
flux on a coral reef, Okinawa. In Sakai, H., and Nozaki, Y.
(eds.), Biogeochemical Processes and Ocean Flux in the Western
Pacific. Tokyo: Terra Scientific Publishing Company
(TERRAPUB), pp. 93–98.
Philippi, R. A., 1837. Beweis, dass die Nulliporen Pflanzen sind.
Archiv Für Naturgeschicthe, 3, 387–393, pl. 9, figs 2–6.
Shors, E. C., 1999. Coralline bone graft substitutes. Orthopedic
Clinics of North America, 30, 599–613.
Silva, P. C., and Johansen, H. W., 1986. A reappraisal of the order
Corallinales (Rhodophyceae). European Journal of Phycology,
21, 245–254.
Sloane, H., 1707. A Voyage to the Islands, Madera, Barbados,
Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica. London: Privately
published, Vol. 1, 364 pp.
Steneck, R. S., 1983. Quantifying herbivory on coral reefs: just
scratching the surface and still biting off more than we can chew.
In Reaka, M. L. (ed.), The Ecology of Deep and Shallow Coral
Reefs. Symposia Series for Undersea Research, Vol. 1, pp.
1103–1112.
Steneck, R. S., 1985. Adaptations of crustose coralline algae to
herbivory: patterns in space and time. In Toomy, D., and
Nitecki, M. (eds.), Paleoalgology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp.
352–366.
Steneck, R. S., 1989. Herbivory on coral reefs: a synthesis. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium.
Australia, Townsville, Vol. 1, pp. 37–49.
Woelkerling, W. J., 1988. The Coralline Red Algae: An Analysis of
the Genera and Subfamilies of Nongeniculate Corallinaceae.
London: British Museum (Natural History).
Cross-references
Algal Rims
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Barrier Reef (Ribbon Reef )
Calcite
Coral Reef, Definition
Fossil Coralline Algae
Fringing Reefs
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Reef Front Wave Energy
Reef Structure
Rhodoliths
Spurs and Grooves
ALGAE-MACRO
Mark M. Littler, Diane S. Littler
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Synonyms
Macroalgae; Macroscopic algae; Multicellular photosynthetic cryptogams; Seaweeds
Definition
Macroalgae are multicellular marine plants that are easily
observed by the unaided eye and whose “thallus” (plant
body) is characterized by holdfasts for attachment, and
by “laminae,” reproductive “sori,” gas bladders, and/or
stipes. They lack the various structures that characterize
higher plants, such as true leaves, roots, and encased
reproductive organs.
Introduction
Macroalgae (“seaweeds”) belong to either one of three
groups of eukaryotic algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae),
Chlorophyta (green algae), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
or to the prokaryotic colony-forming Cyanobacteria/
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae). These four groups do not
have a common multicellular ancestor (i.e., collectively
they are polyphyletic); although, their chloroplasts –
common to all – appear to have had a single blue-green
algal (Cyanobacteria) origin. The presence of chloroplasts
and subsequent capacity for photosynthesis give marine
macroalgae an ecological role as primary producer that is
similar to other marine plants, notably “seagrasses.” However, seagrasses are not seaweeds; rather, they are rooted,
flower, and seed-bearing “higher” plants (Angiosperms).
The macroalgal thallus (i.e., plant body) consists of
blades (leaf-like lamina), reproductive sori (spore clusters),
gas bladders [flotation organs (on blades in rockweeds,
between lamina and stipes in kelps)], stipes [stem-like
structures (may be absent)], and holdfasts [with or without
haptera (finger-like extensions anchoring to substrates)].
The stipe and blade combined are known as the frond.
Macroalgae grow attached to stable substrata in seawater (or brackish water) under light levels sufficient for
photosynthesis. Seaweeds are most commonly found in
shallow waters on rocky shores; however, the green
algal group Bryopsidales includes rhizoidal forms adapted
30
ALGAE-MACRO
realm. Biologie in Unserer Zeit, 24(6), 330–335 [In German].
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1995. CLOD spreading in the seasurface microlayer: response. Science, 270, 897.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1997. Disease-induced mass mortality of crustose coralline algae on coral reefs provides rationale
for the conservation of herbivorous fish stocks. In Proceedings
of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama,
pp. 719–724.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1998. An undescribed fungal pathogen of reef-forming crustose coralline algae discovered in
American Samoa. Coral Reefs, 17(2), 144.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 1999. Castles built by a chiton from
the Great Astrolabe Reef, Fiji. Coral Reefs, 18(2), 146.
Littler, M. M., and Littler, D. S., 2007. Assessment of coral reefs
using herbivory/nutrient assays and indicator groups of benthic
primary producers: a critical synthesis, proposed protocols, and
critique of management strategies. Aquatic Conservation:
Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 17, 195–215.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Brooks, B. L., 2007. Target phenomena on south Pacific reefs: strip harvesting by prudent pathogens? Reef Encounter, 34, 23–24.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Hanisak, M. D. 1991. Deep-water
rhodolith distribution, productivity and growth history at sites of
formation and subsequent degradation. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 91, 1–20.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., and Taylor, P. R., 1995. Selective herbivore increases biomass of its prey: a chiton-coralline reefbuilding association. Ecology, 76(5), 1661–1681.
Ohde, S., 1995. Calcium carbonate production and carbon dioxide
flux on a coral reef, Okinawa. In Sakai, H., and Nozaki, Y.
(eds.), Biogeochemical Processes and Ocean Flux in the Western
Pacific. Tokyo: Terra Scientific Publishing Company
(TERRAPUB), pp. 93–98.
Philippi, R. A., 1837. Beweis, dass die Nulliporen Pflanzen sind.
Archiv Für Naturgeschicthe, 3, 387–393, pl. 9, figs 2–6.
Shors, E. C., 1999. Coralline bone graft substitutes. Orthopedic
Clinics of North America, 30, 599–613.
Silva, P. C., and Johansen, H. W., 1986. A reappraisal of the order
Corallinales (Rhodophyceae). European Journal of Phycology,
21, 245–254.
Sloane, H., 1707. A Voyage to the Islands, Madera, Barbados,
Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica. London: Privately
published, Vol. 1, 364 pp.
Steneck, R. S., 1983. Quantifying herbivory on coral reefs: just
scratching the surface and still biting off more than we can chew.
In Reaka, M. L. (ed.), The Ecology of Deep and Shallow Coral
Reefs. Symposia Series for Undersea Research, Vol. 1, pp.
1103–1112.
Steneck, R. S., 1985. Adaptations of crustose coralline algae to
herbivory: patterns in space and time. In Toomy, D., and
Nitecki, M. (eds.), Paleoalgology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp.
352–366.
Steneck, R. S., 1989. Herbivory on coral reefs: a synthesis. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium.
Australia, Townsville, Vol. 1, pp. 37–49.
Woelkerling, W. J., 1988. The Coralline Red Algae: An Analysis of
the Genera and Subfamilies of Nongeniculate Corallinaceae.
London: British Museum (Natural History).
Cross-references
Algal Rims
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Barrier Reef (Ribbon Reef )
Calcite
Coral Reef, Definition
Fossil Coralline Algae
Fringing Reefs
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Reef Front Wave Energy
Reef Structure
Rhodoliths
Spurs and Grooves
ALGAE-MACRO
Mark M. Littler, Diane S. Littler
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Synonyms
Macroalgae; Macroscopic algae; Multicellular photosynthetic cryptogams; Seaweeds
Definition
Macroalgae are multicellular marine plants that are easily
observed by the unaided eye and whose “thallus” (plant
body) is characterized by holdfasts for attachment, and
by “laminae,” reproductive “sori,” gas bladders, and/or
stipes. They lack the various structures that characterize
higher plants, such as true leaves, roots, and encased
reproductive organs.
Introduction
Macroalgae (“seaweeds”) belong to either one of three
groups of eukaryotic algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae),
Chlorophyta (green algae), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
or to the prokaryotic colony-forming Cyanobacteria/
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae). These four groups do not
have a common multicellular ancestor (i.e., collectively
they are polyphyletic); although, their chloroplasts –
common to all – appear to have had a single blue-green
algal (Cyanobacteria) origin. The presence of chloroplasts
and subsequent capacity for photosynthesis give marine
macroalgae an ecological role as primary producer that is
similar to other marine plants, notably “seagrasses.” However, seagrasses are not seaweeds; rather, they are rooted,
flower, and seed-bearing “higher” plants (Angiosperms).
The macroalgal thallus (i.e., plant body) consists of
blades (leaf-like lamina), reproductive sori (spore clusters),
gas bladders [flotation organs (on blades in rockweeds,
between lamina and stipes in kelps)], stipes [stem-like
structures (may be absent)], and holdfasts [with or without
haptera (finger-like extensions anchoring to substrates)].
The stipe and blade combined are known as the frond.
Macroalgae grow attached to stable substrata in seawater (or brackish water) under light levels sufficient for
photosynthesis. Seaweeds are most commonly found in
shallow waters on rocky shores; however, the green
algal group Bryopsidales includes rhizoidal forms adapted
30
ALGAE-MACRO