Paleontological (Aronson and Precht, 1997; Wapnick
et al., 2004; Pandolfi and Jackson, 2006), archaeological
(Erlandson and Rick, 2008), historical (Starkey et al.,
2000; Bolster, 2006; Lajus, 2008), ecological (Greenstein
et al., 1998; McClenachan et al., 2006), genetic (Roman
and Palumbi, 2003; Alter et al., 2007), and modeling studies are all contributing to a new awareness of the past
bounty and diversity in the sea (Jackson, 2008; Pinnegar
and Engelhard, 2008). Historical data sources include oral
histories (Dulvy and Polunin, 2004), photographs
(McClenachan, 2009), museum records (Robinson and
Frid, 2008), early scientific studies (Lajus et al., 2007),
fisheries information including logbook data (Klaer and
Polacheck, 1997), landings, effort, and gear (Bager et al.,
2007; Lotze, 2007; MacKenzie et al., 2007), and fishing
charts (Claesson, 2008). Historical studies are limited to
the periods of time and geographic areas for which data
are available (MacKenzie et al., 2007). Some studies are
limited to more recent history (McClenachan, 2009),
while others date back to the sixteenth century
(MacKenzie et al., 2007). Many fisheries records are only
available for disjointed time periods (Gaumiga et al.,
2007; MacKenzie et al., 2007), while others provide continuous time series lasting over a hundred years (Holm and
Bager, 2001; Lajus et al., 2007). Some data sources provide only a snapshot of past conditions such as journal
entries and photographs; however, when viewed together
over a period of time such information can reveal substantial changes in marine environments (Jackson, 1997).
Historical ecology of coastal ecosystems
Recent papers on the historical ecology of coastal ecosystems have demonstrated the importance of time-series data
to understanding the ecology and degradation over long
temporal scales. For example, by employing a multidisciplinary approach involving ecologists, oceanographers, archaeologists, and social scientists, Jeremy
Jackson and his colleagues (Jackson et al., 2001) investigated the ecological history of coastal ecosystems worldwide. The work documents in broad terms the history of
human alterations in the sea, identifying overfishing as
the first and farthest reaching cause of decline in coastal
marine ecosystems. Historical marine ecology has since
investigated a broad range of ecosystems and problems
in the sea (for recent review see Lotze and Worm, 2009).
Key findings on coral reefs
Study of coral reef ecosystems has also been subject to the
“shifting baseline syndrome” – coral reef systems have
undergone systematic degradation prior to recent ecological
studies in the last three or four decades. This strongly
implies that no reef can be considered “pristine”, and that
no standard exists by which to compare the magnitude of
these changes (Jackson et al., 2001). Through paleoecological reconstruction of coral reefs from the Caribbean region,
recent studies have highlighted the collapse of coral
communities at a regional level, which is unprecedented
within the Holocene (12,000 years ago – present),
(Greenstein et al., 1998; Aronson et al., 2002) and
Pleistocene (1.8 million – 12,000 years ago), (Jackson,
1992; Greenstein et al., 1998; Pandolfi, 2001; Pandolfi
and Jackson, 2006).
Very recent work has sought to understand human
impacts by developing time-series data archives that can
be used to evaluate trends in the global decline of coral
reefs since the arrival of humans (Pandolfi et al., 2003;
Daley et al., 2008). Study of the historical ecology of coral
reefs, relying on the past history of corals and other components of the reef ecosystem showed that the history of
ecosystem changes among 14 different tropical reef sites
worldwide, with early and effective overfishing as the
major culprit in reef decline (Pandolfi et al., 2003;
Pandolfi et al., 2005). These findings point to the immense
importance of understanding historical events when
attempting to tease out factors that have influenced or
may influence present coral reef biodiversity (Pandolfi
et al., 2003). By considering these global “ecological trajectories” in the light of potential responses to projected
global climate change, the history of human exploitation
can be linked with global environmental parameters
(Hughes et al., 2003). Knowledge of past ecosystem states
provides at the minimum, an understanding of what was
natural and may even aid in assessing the success of management toward particular conservation goals.
Numerous other smaller scale studies have been undertaken on individual reefs and reef areas around the world,
including Hawaii (Herman, 1979), the Great Barrier Reef,
(Daley et al., 2008), Florida (McClenachan, 2009),
Bahamas (Blick, 2007), Solomon Islands (Aswani and
Hamilton, 2004), Indonesia (Palomares et al., 2007) and
the Caribbean (Jackson, 1997; McClenachan et al.,
2006). The demise of many coral reef fisheries has been
traced to their historical beginnings including Florida
sponges (McClenachan, 2008), Caribbean turtles
(McClenachan et al., 2006) and monk seals (McClenachan
and Cooper, 2008), sea turtles in Oceania (Allen, 2007),
and Hong Kong fisheries (Cheung and Sadovy, 2004).
Through these studies, there is now general recognition
throughout the coral reef scientific and management
communities of the importance of considering changes
in ecosystem state over appropriate time scales (Dulvy
and Polunin, 2004; Knowlton and Jackson, 2008;
Pinnegar and Engelhard, 2008). Importantly, there is
far greater appreciation of the historical development,
timing, and ecosystem responses to the ultimate drivers
of coral reef ecosystem decline, namely overfishing
(Roberts, 2007), climate change (Hughes et al., 2003),
and coastal development and pollution (Ramade and
Roche, 2006).
An understanding of the history of reef coral communities can aid conservation initiatives by supplying information on natural baselines in the sea that are immune to the
“shifting baseline syndrome”. For example, in Barbados
coral community composition was very similar during
four separate reef-building episodes between 220 ka and
HISTORICAL ECOLOGY OF CORAL REEFS
555
et al., 2004; Pandolfi and Jackson, 2006), archaeological
(Erlandson and Rick, 2008), historical (Starkey et al.,
2000; Bolster, 2006; Lajus, 2008), ecological (Greenstein
et al., 1998; McClenachan et al., 2006), genetic (Roman
and Palumbi, 2003; Alter et al., 2007), and modeling studies are all contributing to a new awareness of the past
bounty and diversity in the sea (Jackson, 2008; Pinnegar
and Engelhard, 2008). Historical data sources include oral
histories (Dulvy and Polunin, 2004), photographs
(McClenachan, 2009), museum records (Robinson and
Frid, 2008), early scientific studies (Lajus et al., 2007),
fisheries information including logbook data (Klaer and
Polacheck, 1997), landings, effort, and gear (Bager et al.,
2007; Lotze, 2007; MacKenzie et al., 2007), and fishing
charts (Claesson, 2008). Historical studies are limited to
the periods of time and geographic areas for which data
are available (MacKenzie et al., 2007). Some studies are
limited to more recent history (McClenachan, 2009),
while others date back to the sixteenth century
(MacKenzie et al., 2007). Many fisheries records are only
available for disjointed time periods (Gaumiga et al.,
2007; MacKenzie et al., 2007), while others provide continuous time series lasting over a hundred years (Holm and
Bager, 2001; Lajus et al., 2007). Some data sources provide only a snapshot of past conditions such as journal
entries and photographs; however, when viewed together
over a period of time such information can reveal substantial changes in marine environments (Jackson, 1997).
Historical ecology of coastal ecosystems
Recent papers on the historical ecology of coastal ecosystems have demonstrated the importance of time-series data
to understanding the ecology and degradation over long
temporal scales. For example, by employing a multidisciplinary approach involving ecologists, oceanographers, archaeologists, and social scientists, Jeremy
Jackson and his colleagues (Jackson et al., 2001) investigated the ecological history of coastal ecosystems worldwide. The work documents in broad terms the history of
human alterations in the sea, identifying overfishing as
the first and farthest reaching cause of decline in coastal
marine ecosystems. Historical marine ecology has since
investigated a broad range of ecosystems and problems
in the sea (for recent review see Lotze and Worm, 2009).
Key findings on coral reefs
Study of coral reef ecosystems has also been subject to the
“shifting baseline syndrome” – coral reef systems have
undergone systematic degradation prior to recent ecological
studies in the last three or four decades. This strongly
implies that no reef can be considered “pristine”, and that
no standard exists by which to compare the magnitude of
these changes (Jackson et al., 2001). Through paleoecological reconstruction of coral reefs from the Caribbean region,
recent studies have highlighted the collapse of coral
communities at a regional level, which is unprecedented
within the Holocene (12,000 years ago – present),
(Greenstein et al., 1998; Aronson et al., 2002) and
Pleistocene (1.8 million – 12,000 years ago), (Jackson,
1992; Greenstein et al., 1998; Pandolfi, 2001; Pandolfi
and Jackson, 2006).
Very recent work has sought to understand human
impacts by developing time-series data archives that can
be used to evaluate trends in the global decline of coral
reefs since the arrival of humans (Pandolfi et al., 2003;
Daley et al., 2008). Study of the historical ecology of coral
reefs, relying on the past history of corals and other components of the reef ecosystem showed that the history of
ecosystem changes among 14 different tropical reef sites
worldwide, with early and effective overfishing as the
major culprit in reef decline (Pandolfi et al., 2003;
Pandolfi et al., 2005). These findings point to the immense
importance of understanding historical events when
attempting to tease out factors that have influenced or
may influence present coral reef biodiversity (Pandolfi
et al., 2003). By considering these global “ecological trajectories” in the light of potential responses to projected
global climate change, the history of human exploitation
can be linked with global environmental parameters
(Hughes et al., 2003). Knowledge of past ecosystem states
provides at the minimum, an understanding of what was
natural and may even aid in assessing the success of management toward particular conservation goals.
Numerous other smaller scale studies have been undertaken on individual reefs and reef areas around the world,
including Hawaii (Herman, 1979), the Great Barrier Reef,
(Daley et al., 2008), Florida (McClenachan, 2009),
Bahamas (Blick, 2007), Solomon Islands (Aswani and
Hamilton, 2004), Indonesia (Palomares et al., 2007) and
the Caribbean (Jackson, 1997; McClenachan et al.,
2006). The demise of many coral reef fisheries has been
traced to their historical beginnings including Florida
sponges (McClenachan, 2008), Caribbean turtles
(McClenachan et al., 2006) and monk seals (McClenachan
and Cooper, 2008), sea turtles in Oceania (Allen, 2007),
and Hong Kong fisheries (Cheung and Sadovy, 2004).
Through these studies, there is now general recognition
throughout the coral reef scientific and management
communities of the importance of considering changes
in ecosystem state over appropriate time scales (Dulvy
and Polunin, 2004; Knowlton and Jackson, 2008;
Pinnegar and Engelhard, 2008). Importantly, there is
far greater appreciation of the historical development,
timing, and ecosystem responses to the ultimate drivers
of coral reef ecosystem decline, namely overfishing
(Roberts, 2007), climate change (Hughes et al., 2003),
and coastal development and pollution (Ramade and
Roche, 2006).
An understanding of the history of reef coral communities can aid conservation initiatives by supplying information on natural baselines in the sea that are immune to the
“shifting baseline syndrome”. For example, in Barbados
coral community composition was very similar during
four separate reef-building episodes between 220 ka and
HISTORICAL ECOLOGY OF CORAL REEFS
555