A., Shinn, E. A., Simonich, S. L., and Smith, G. W., 2006. Saharan dust – a carrier of persistent organic pollutants, metals and
microbes to the Caribbean? Revista de Biologia Tropical, 54
(Suppl 3), 9–21.
Glynn, P. W., 1988. El Niño-southern oscillation 1982–83: Nearshore population, community and ecosystem responses. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics, 19, 309–346.
Griffin, D. W., 2007. Atmospheric movement of microorganisms in
clouds of desert dust and implications for human health. Clinical
Microbiology Reviews, 20(3), 459–477.
Griffin, D. W., Kellogg, C. A., Garrison, V. H., Lisle, J. T., Borden
T. C., and Shinn, E. A., 2003. Atmospheric microbiology in the
northern caribbean during african dust events. Aerobiologia, 19
(3–4), 143–157.
Holmes, W. W., Miller, R., 2004. Atmospherically transported elements and deposition in the southeastern United States: Local
or transoceanic? Applied Geochemistry, 19, 1189–1200.
Kellogg, C. A., and Griffin, D. W., 2006. Aerobiology and the
global transport of desert dust. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
21(11), 638–644.
Koren, I., Kaufman, Y. J., Washington, R., Todd, M. C., Rudich, Y.,
Martins, J. V., and Rosenfeld, D., 2006. The bodele depression:
A single spot in the sahara that provides most of the mineral dust
to the amazon forest. Environmental Research Letters, 1,
014005, doi:10.1088/1748
Lessios, H. A., Robertson, D. R., and Cubit, J. E., 1984. Spread of
diadema mass mortalities through the Caribbean. Science, 226,
335–337.
Payton, A., Mackey, K. R. M., Chen, Y., Lima, I. D., Doney, S. C.,
Mahowald, N., Labiosa, R., and Post, A. F., 2009. Toxicity of
atmospheric aerosols on marine phytoplankton. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, 106(12), 4601–4605.
Perry, D. D., Cahill, T. A., Eldred, R. A., and Dutcher, D. D., 1990.
Long-range transport of north african dust to the Eastern
United States. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102(D10),
11,225–11,238.
Prospero, J. M., 1999. Long-Term Measurements of the Transport
of African Mineral Dust to the Southeastern United States:
Implications for Regional Air Quality. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 104(D13), 15,917–15,927.
Prospero, J. M., Barrett, K., Church, T., Dentener, F., Duce, R. A.,
Galloway, J. N., Levy II. H., Moody, J., and Quinn, P., 1996.
Atmospheric deposition of nutrients to the north atlantic basin.
Biogeochemistry, 35, 27–73.
Prospero, J. M., and Nees, R. T., 1986. Impact of the north african
drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade
winds. Nature, 320, 735–738.
Shinn, E. A., Smith, G. W., Prospero, J. M., Betzer, P., Hayes, M. L.,
Garrison, V., and Barber, R. T., 2000. African dust and the
demise of caribbean coral reefs. Geophysical Research Letters,
27(19), 3,029–3,032.
Swap, R., Garstang, M., Greco, S., Talbot, R., and Kallberg, P., 1992.
Saharan dust in the amazon basin. Tellus, 44B(2), 133–149.
Walsh, J. J., Joliff, J. K., Darrow, B. P., Lenes, J. M., Milroy, S. P.,
and 20 others, 2006. Red tides in the Gulf of Mexico: Where,
when and why? Journal of Geophysical Research, 111,
C11003, doi:10.1029/2004JC002813
Weir-Brush, J. W., Garrison, V. H., Smith, G. W., and Shinn, E. A.,
2004. The relationship between gorgonian coral (Cnidaria:
Gorgonacea) diseases and african dust storms. Aerobiologia,
20(2), 119–126.
Young, R. W., Carder, K. L., Betzer, P. R., Costello, D. K., Duce,
R. A., DiTullio, G. R., Tindale, N. W., Laws, E. A., Uematsu,
M., Merrill, J. T., and Feeley, R. A., 1991. Atmospheric iron
inputs and primary productivity: Phytoplankton responses
in the North Pacific. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 5(2),
119–134.
Cross-references
Bahamas
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Darwin, Charles (1809–1882)
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Florida Keys
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals
Indian Ocean Reefs
Microbes
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Western Atlantic/Caribbean, Coral Reefs
ALGAE, BLUE-GREEN BORING
Mark M. Littler, Diane S. Littler
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Synonyms
Blue-green microborers/endoliths; Endolithic (euendolithic)
cyanophyta/cyanobacteria; Rock-boring blue-green
algae
Definition
The blue-green boring algae are filamentous, prokaryotic,
mostly photosynthetic organisms that chemically bore
into calcareous rock and limestone.
Penetrating or boring algae play important roles in the
bioerosion of coral reefs; these filamentous microorganisms result in the breakdown of carbonate structure both
directly and indirectly [see Tribollet (2008) for review].
They occur from the upper intertidal to abyssal depths
(Golubic et al., 1984), but, in general, show a decrease
with depth. The commonest are blue-green algae
(Cyanophyta, Cyanobacteria) that attack calcareous substrates differentially; the aragonite skeletons of corals are
most easily penetrated and the denser calcite deposits of
coralline algae are most resistant. However, the mechanism of carbonate dissolution remains largely unknown
and actually contradicts geochemical models that predict
the precipitation of carbonates by photosynthetically
induced pH increases. As a consequence of variable processes, such as selective settling, competition, persistence,
and subsequent grazing of euendolithic (true endoliths)
Cyanobacteria, coastal rocks are biodegraded differentially, resulting in grotesque sharp-edged features called
karsts (Figure 1). These processes act as feedback mechanisms by producing diverse microbial habitats with patchy
water-retention pockets, which further enhance bioerosion
and endolithic community diversity.
Boring endoliths colonize all carbonate substrates on
coral reefs and are distributed throughout the world’s tropical seas. Intertidal carbonate coasts are most intensively
bioeroded (Figure 2). However, endolithic activity not
only negatively inflicts damage to living hosts, but also
18
ALGAE, BLUE-GREEN BORING
microbes to the Caribbean? Revista de Biologia Tropical, 54
(Suppl 3), 9–21.
Glynn, P. W., 1988. El Niño-southern oscillation 1982–83: Nearshore population, community and ecosystem responses. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics, 19, 309–346.
Griffin, D. W., 2007. Atmospheric movement of microorganisms in
clouds of desert dust and implications for human health. Clinical
Microbiology Reviews, 20(3), 459–477.
Griffin, D. W., Kellogg, C. A., Garrison, V. H., Lisle, J. T., Borden
T. C., and Shinn, E. A., 2003. Atmospheric microbiology in the
northern caribbean during african dust events. Aerobiologia, 19
(3–4), 143–157.
Holmes, W. W., Miller, R., 2004. Atmospherically transported elements and deposition in the southeastern United States: Local
or transoceanic? Applied Geochemistry, 19, 1189–1200.
Kellogg, C. A., and Griffin, D. W., 2006. Aerobiology and the
global transport of desert dust. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
21(11), 638–644.
Koren, I., Kaufman, Y. J., Washington, R., Todd, M. C., Rudich, Y.,
Martins, J. V., and Rosenfeld, D., 2006. The bodele depression:
A single spot in the sahara that provides most of the mineral dust
to the amazon forest. Environmental Research Letters, 1,
014005, doi:10.1088/1748
Lessios, H. A., Robertson, D. R., and Cubit, J. E., 1984. Spread of
diadema mass mortalities through the Caribbean. Science, 226,
335–337.
Payton, A., Mackey, K. R. M., Chen, Y., Lima, I. D., Doney, S. C.,
Mahowald, N., Labiosa, R., and Post, A. F., 2009. Toxicity of
atmospheric aerosols on marine phytoplankton. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, 106(12), 4601–4605.
Perry, D. D., Cahill, T. A., Eldred, R. A., and Dutcher, D. D., 1990.
Long-range transport of north african dust to the Eastern
United States. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102(D10),
11,225–11,238.
Prospero, J. M., 1999. Long-Term Measurements of the Transport
of African Mineral Dust to the Southeastern United States:
Implications for Regional Air Quality. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 104(D13), 15,917–15,927.
Prospero, J. M., Barrett, K., Church, T., Dentener, F., Duce, R. A.,
Galloway, J. N., Levy II. H., Moody, J., and Quinn, P., 1996.
Atmospheric deposition of nutrients to the north atlantic basin.
Biogeochemistry, 35, 27–73.
Prospero, J. M., and Nees, R. T., 1986. Impact of the north african
drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade
winds. Nature, 320, 735–738.
Shinn, E. A., Smith, G. W., Prospero, J. M., Betzer, P., Hayes, M. L.,
Garrison, V., and Barber, R. T., 2000. African dust and the
demise of caribbean coral reefs. Geophysical Research Letters,
27(19), 3,029–3,032.
Swap, R., Garstang, M., Greco, S., Talbot, R., and Kallberg, P., 1992.
Saharan dust in the amazon basin. Tellus, 44B(2), 133–149.
Walsh, J. J., Joliff, J. K., Darrow, B. P., Lenes, J. M., Milroy, S. P.,
and 20 others, 2006. Red tides in the Gulf of Mexico: Where,
when and why? Journal of Geophysical Research, 111,
C11003, doi:10.1029/2004JC002813
Weir-Brush, J. W., Garrison, V. H., Smith, G. W., and Shinn, E. A.,
2004. The relationship between gorgonian coral (Cnidaria:
Gorgonacea) diseases and african dust storms. Aerobiologia,
20(2), 119–126.
Young, R. W., Carder, K. L., Betzer, P. R., Costello, D. K., Duce,
R. A., DiTullio, G. R., Tindale, N. W., Laws, E. A., Uematsu,
M., Merrill, J. T., and Feeley, R. A., 1991. Atmospheric iron
inputs and primary productivity: Phytoplankton responses
in the North Pacific. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 5(2),
119–134.
Cross-references
Bahamas
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Darwin, Charles (1809–1882)
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Florida Keys
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals
Indian Ocean Reefs
Microbes
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Western Atlantic/Caribbean, Coral Reefs
ALGAE, BLUE-GREEN BORING
Mark M. Littler, Diane S. Littler
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Synonyms
Blue-green microborers/endoliths; Endolithic (euendolithic)
cyanophyta/cyanobacteria; Rock-boring blue-green
algae
Definition
The blue-green boring algae are filamentous, prokaryotic,
mostly photosynthetic organisms that chemically bore
into calcareous rock and limestone.
Penetrating or boring algae play important roles in the
bioerosion of coral reefs; these filamentous microorganisms result in the breakdown of carbonate structure both
directly and indirectly [see Tribollet (2008) for review].
They occur from the upper intertidal to abyssal depths
(Golubic et al., 1984), but, in general, show a decrease
with depth. The commonest are blue-green algae
(Cyanophyta, Cyanobacteria) that attack calcareous substrates differentially; the aragonite skeletons of corals are
most easily penetrated and the denser calcite deposits of
coralline algae are most resistant. However, the mechanism of carbonate dissolution remains largely unknown
and actually contradicts geochemical models that predict
the precipitation of carbonates by photosynthetically
induced pH increases. As a consequence of variable processes, such as selective settling, competition, persistence,
and subsequent grazing of euendolithic (true endoliths)
Cyanobacteria, coastal rocks are biodegraded differentially, resulting in grotesque sharp-edged features called
karsts (Figure 1). These processes act as feedback mechanisms by producing diverse microbial habitats with patchy
water-retention pockets, which further enhance bioerosion
and endolithic community diversity.
Boring endoliths colonize all carbonate substrates on
coral reefs and are distributed throughout the world’s tropical seas. Intertidal carbonate coasts are most intensively
bioeroded (Figure 2). However, endolithic activity not
only negatively inflicts damage to living hosts, but also
18
ALGAE, BLUE-GREEN BORING