Bibliography
Adey, W. H., 1986. Coralline algae as indicators of sea-level. In
Plassche, O. van de (ed.), Sea-Level Research: A Manual for
the Collection and Evaluation of Data. Norwich: Geo Books,
pp. 229À279.
Adey, W. H., Townsend, R. A., and Boykins, W. T., 1982. The crustose coralline algae (Rhodophyta: Corallinaceae) of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contributions to Marine Sciences, 15,
1À74.
Bosence, D. W. J., 1991. Coralline algae: mineralization, taxonomy,
and paleoecology. In Riding, R. (ed.), Calcerous Algae and Stromatolites. Berlin: Springer, pp. 98À113.
Braga, J. C., Bosence, D. W., and Steneck, R. S., 1993. New anatomical characters in fossil coralline algae and their taxonomic
implications. Palaeontology, 36, 535À547.
Cabioch, G., Montaggioni, L. F., Faure, G., and Ribaud-Laurenti, A.,
1999. Reef coralgal assemblages as recorders of paleobathymetry
and sea level changes in the Indo-Pacific province. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 18, 1681À1695.
Fabricius, K., and De'ath, G., 2001. Environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of crustose coralline algae on
the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 19, 303À309.
Iryu, Y., Nakamori, T., Matsuda, S., and Abe, O., 1995. Distribution
of marine organisms and its geological significance in the modern reef complex of the Ryukyu Islands. Sedimentary Geology,
99, 243À258.
Littler, D. S., and Littler, M. M., 2000. Caribbean Reef Plants: An
Identification Guide to the Reef Plants of the Caribbean, Bahamas, Florida and Gulf of Mexico. Washington: Offshore
Graphics, Inc.
Littler, D. S., and Littler, M. M., 2003. South Pacific Reef Plants.
A Divers’ Guide to the Plant Life of South Pacific Coral Reefs.
Washington: Off Shore Graphics, Inc.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., Blair, S. M., and Norris, J. N. 1985.
Deepest known plant life discovered on an uncharted seamount.
Science, 227, 57–59.
Verheij, E., and Erftemeijer, P. L. A., 1993. Distribution of
seagrasses and associated macroalgae in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea, 38, 45À64.
Webster, J. M., Braga, J. C., Clague, D. A., Gallup, C., Hein, J. R.,
Potts, D. C., Renema, W., Riding, R., Riker-Coleman, K.,
Silver, E., and Wallace, L. M., 2009. Coral reef evolution on
rapidly subsiding margins. Global and Planetary Change, 66,
129À148.
Cross-references
Algae, Coralline
Binding Organisms
Emerged Reefs
Packstone
Rhodoliths
Submerged Reefs
FRAMESTONE
Peter Flood
University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
Framestone is a modification proposed by Embry and
Klovan (1971) to the Dunham (1962) Boundstone type
of limestone where the framework organisms provided
a rigid framework.
Bibliography
Embry, A. F., and Klovan, J. E., 1971. A Late Devonian reef tract on
Northeastern Banks Island. NWT: Canadian Petroleum Geology
Bulletin, Vol. 19, pp. 730–781.
FRINGING REEF CIRCULATION
Kevin E. Parnell
James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
Synonyms
Fringing reef hydrodynamics
Definition
Fringing reef circulation is the flow of water generated by
wave, tide, and wind generated currents, over and adjacent
to fringing reefs and in their associated lagoons, including
flow patterns resulting from water movements interacting
with elements of the reef morphology.
Introduction
Fringing reefs have been described as being morphologically simple (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2002), but variation
in important parameters such as the reef morphology, tidal
range, and wave energy means that a widely applicable
model of fringing reef water circulation does not exist. Fundamental distinctions can be made between fringing reefs
with or without an enclosed lagoon, those on the windward
shores (with circulation normally driven by waves) or leeward shores (with tidal and other currents dominating),
and those enclosed by headlands (where topographically
controlled circulation is important) or those that extend
along a more or less straight shoreline. Other reef types that
could be described as fringing are variously described as
either fringing or barrier (e.g., Ningaloo Reef, Australia;
Hearn, 1999), bank-fringing (e.g., Great Pond Bay, St
Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands; Lugo-Fernandez et al., 1998b),
bank-barrier (e.g., Tague Reef, St Croix; Lugo-Fernandez
et al., 2004), or coral lagoons (e.g., Kaneohe Bay, Oahu,
Hawaii; Hearn, 1999). Other authors have described reefs
adjacent to coral cays as fringing (Daly and Brander, 2006).
Waves and wave generated circulation
Wave driven circulation on coral reefs has received considerable attention, with many processes on both fringing
and non-fringing reefs being generally similar. When
waves reach a reef, shoaling is rapid and the surf zone
is narrow, with most energy expended over a short distance at the reef edge or at the reef crest. Most energy
(60–97%) is lost during the wave shoaling, breaking,
and reforming processes (Gourlay, 1994; Lugo-Fernandez
FRINGING REEF CIRCULATION
427
Adey, W. H., 1986. Coralline algae as indicators of sea-level. In
Plassche, O. van de (ed.), Sea-Level Research: A Manual for
the Collection and Evaluation of Data. Norwich: Geo Books,
pp. 229À279.
Adey, W. H., Townsend, R. A., and Boykins, W. T., 1982. The crustose coralline algae (Rhodophyta: Corallinaceae) of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Contributions to Marine Sciences, 15,
1À74.
Bosence, D. W. J., 1991. Coralline algae: mineralization, taxonomy,
and paleoecology. In Riding, R. (ed.), Calcerous Algae and Stromatolites. Berlin: Springer, pp. 98À113.
Braga, J. C., Bosence, D. W., and Steneck, R. S., 1993. New anatomical characters in fossil coralline algae and their taxonomic
implications. Palaeontology, 36, 535À547.
Cabioch, G., Montaggioni, L. F., Faure, G., and Ribaud-Laurenti, A.,
1999. Reef coralgal assemblages as recorders of paleobathymetry
and sea level changes in the Indo-Pacific province. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 18, 1681À1695.
Fabricius, K., and De'ath, G., 2001. Environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of crustose coralline algae on
the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 19, 303À309.
Iryu, Y., Nakamori, T., Matsuda, S., and Abe, O., 1995. Distribution
of marine organisms and its geological significance in the modern reef complex of the Ryukyu Islands. Sedimentary Geology,
99, 243À258.
Littler, D. S., and Littler, M. M., 2000. Caribbean Reef Plants: An
Identification Guide to the Reef Plants of the Caribbean, Bahamas, Florida and Gulf of Mexico. Washington: Offshore
Graphics, Inc.
Littler, D. S., and Littler, M. M., 2003. South Pacific Reef Plants.
A Divers’ Guide to the Plant Life of South Pacific Coral Reefs.
Washington: Off Shore Graphics, Inc.
Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., Blair, S. M., and Norris, J. N. 1985.
Deepest known plant life discovered on an uncharted seamount.
Science, 227, 57–59.
Verheij, E., and Erftemeijer, P. L. A., 1993. Distribution of
seagrasses and associated macroalgae in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea, 38, 45À64.
Webster, J. M., Braga, J. C., Clague, D. A., Gallup, C., Hein, J. R.,
Potts, D. C., Renema, W., Riding, R., Riker-Coleman, K.,
Silver, E., and Wallace, L. M., 2009. Coral reef evolution on
rapidly subsiding margins. Global and Planetary Change, 66,
129À148.
Cross-references
Algae, Coralline
Binding Organisms
Emerged Reefs
Packstone
Rhodoliths
Submerged Reefs
FRAMESTONE
Peter Flood
University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
Framestone is a modification proposed by Embry and
Klovan (1971) to the Dunham (1962) Boundstone type
of limestone where the framework organisms provided
a rigid framework.
Bibliography
Embry, A. F., and Klovan, J. E., 1971. A Late Devonian reef tract on
Northeastern Banks Island. NWT: Canadian Petroleum Geology
Bulletin, Vol. 19, pp. 730–781.
FRINGING REEF CIRCULATION
Kevin E. Parnell
James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
Synonyms
Fringing reef hydrodynamics
Definition
Fringing reef circulation is the flow of water generated by
wave, tide, and wind generated currents, over and adjacent
to fringing reefs and in their associated lagoons, including
flow patterns resulting from water movements interacting
with elements of the reef morphology.
Introduction
Fringing reefs have been described as being morphologically simple (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2002), but variation
in important parameters such as the reef morphology, tidal
range, and wave energy means that a widely applicable
model of fringing reef water circulation does not exist. Fundamental distinctions can be made between fringing reefs
with or without an enclosed lagoon, those on the windward
shores (with circulation normally driven by waves) or leeward shores (with tidal and other currents dominating),
and those enclosed by headlands (where topographically
controlled circulation is important) or those that extend
along a more or less straight shoreline. Other reef types that
could be described as fringing are variously described as
either fringing or barrier (e.g., Ningaloo Reef, Australia;
Hearn, 1999), bank-fringing (e.g., Great Pond Bay, St
Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands; Lugo-Fernandez et al., 1998b),
bank-barrier (e.g., Tague Reef, St Croix; Lugo-Fernandez
et al., 2004), or coral lagoons (e.g., Kaneohe Bay, Oahu,
Hawaii; Hearn, 1999). Other authors have described reefs
adjacent to coral cays as fringing (Daly and Brander, 2006).
Waves and wave generated circulation
Wave driven circulation on coral reefs has received considerable attention, with many processes on both fringing
and non-fringing reefs being generally similar. When
waves reach a reef, shoaling is rapid and the surf zone
is narrow, with most energy expended over a short distance at the reef edge or at the reef crest. Most energy
(60–97%) is lost during the wave shoaling, breaking,
and reforming processes (Gourlay, 1994; Lugo-Fernandez
FRINGING REEF CIRCULATION
427