of these dated corals. From these new results, there is
a better constraint of the sea-level estimates between the
isotopic data and the coral dating. New dates were
obtained from the Huon Peninsula in 2003 by Cutler
et al., using high-precision 231Pa and 230Th dating
methods. They were focused on the Marine Isotope
Stages 5 and 3. These authors provided data regarding
the timing and the magnitude of the relative high stands
and their transition during the MIS 5 sea-level variations.
Moreover, some inputs were made on the relative sealevel variations of the MIS 3, with sea-level estimates
ranging from 60.6 to 36.8 ka from between À85 and
À74 m. In addition, all these studies on coral reefs from
PNG provided information on deep ocean temperatures
(Chappell and Shackleton, 1986; Chappell et al., 1996)
highlighting the differences in the deep ocean temperature
change from MIS 5 (125 ka) and MIS 2 (24 ka) and
between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Cutler et al., 2003).
Pacific: Vanuatu
Vanuatu (see Vanuatu) is an island archipelago located in
the South-West Pacific at the convergent boundary of the
Australian, Pacific, and North Fiji Basin tectonic plates.
Early works performed by Mitchell (1968) in Malakula,
Neef and Veeh (1977) in Efaté, and Jouannic et al.
(1980) and Taylor et al. (1980) in Espiruto Santo and Malakula revealed the presence of several elevated coral reefs.
Even earlier, Stearns (1945) was one of the first scientists
to try to interpret the presence of Pleistocene raised coral
reefs in Espiritu Santo. In Efaté (or Vaté), Neef and Veeh
(1977) identified sea levels of the last 125 ka by dating
these emerged coral reefs. In the North of Malakula, previous works identified six main terraces culminating at
about 350 m but some discrepancies in altitude occur,
probably due to coral reworking and/or errors in altitude
assignment (Mitchell, 1968; Jouannic et al., 1980).
A survey performed in 2001 by Cabioch and Ayliffe provided more recent U/Th coral dating of these raised terraces
and also observed several minor terraces. An estimate of
the sea-level highstands from MIS 3 (55–40 ka) was
given. These sea-level estimates are in good agreement
with the data from PNG (Chappell et al., 1996). The North
of the island of Malakula and the south and the east of the
island of Espiritu Santo are also characterized by a series
of raised terraces which were dated by Jouannic et al.
(1980) and Taylor et al. (1980, 1987, 1990), providing information on vertical motions in relation to the
D’Entrecasteaux Ridge collision (see Chapter Vanuatu).
Moreover, in this area, Taylor et al. (2005) showed the
occurrence of a Late Quaternary cycle of uplift and subsidence in Espiritu Santo over one or two hundred thousand
years, interpreted as resulting from subduction of morphological features at the D’Entrecasteaux Zone.
Pacific: Solomon islands
South of Papua New Guinea and north of Vanuatu, the
Solomon Islands, at the boundary convergence of the
Australian and Pacific tectonic plates, are also characterized by raised reefs. In comparison with studies performed
in PNG and Vanuatu, very little is known about these
raised terraces. Stearns (1945) indicated the presence of
raised reefs in Guadalcanal, then in 1969, Stoddart extensively described the geomorphology of the Solomon
Islands including elevated fringing and barrier reefs. Similarly to the Vanuatu archipelago, coral dating by Taylor
et al. (2005) revealed the occurrence of a Late Quaternary
cycle of uplift and subsidence in the central part of the
New Georgia Island Group interpreted as resulting from
subduction of the Coleman seamount or other prominent
morphological features.
Pacific: Fiji
The islands of Fiji are located on the northern end of the
Lau ridge, an old island arc. Elevated reefs were dated to
the MIS 5 (125-ka highstand) (Nunn et al., 2002). Two
alternative explanations were given by these authors to
explain the elevation of these reefs. The Vanuabalavu
island group could have been affected by the loading on
the lithosphere inducing subsidence and reef uplift or
alternatively it could be from the continuing anticlockwise
rotation of the Fiji platform.
Pacific: Ryukyu
In the North-West Pacific, in the tectonically active region
of the island arc at the boundary between the Amami
Plateau in the Philippine Sea and the Eurasian tectonic
plates, the Ryukyu Islands (see Ryukyu Islands) display
sequences of emerged coral reefs. Kikai-Jima displays
the highest uplift rate. These elevated reefs were described
by several previous authors, and among these, Konishi
(1974) provided Uranium and C14 dating of the five
well-preserved coral terraces covering the period of the
last interglacial period (the last 125 ka). Sugihara et al.
(2003) focused their studies on the four Holocene raised
coral reef terraces reaching an altitude up to 10 m and
showed that these four terraces resulted from successive
seismic uplifts. Sasaki et al. (2004), in the north of Kikai
island, dated the coral terraces reaching an altitude from
15 to 65 m. The Uranium ages showed the occurrence of
several reef sequences ranging from 75 to 51 ka. In addition to these works, older Pleistocene reef formations
(400–500 ka) were described in the Ryukyus by Nakamori
et al. (1995) based on geochronological dating and calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy.
Indian Ocean: Indonesia
In Indonesia (see Indonesian Reefs), at the boundary of
several tectonic plates, many islands display sequences
of raised coral terraces. Chappell and Veeh (1978) in
Atauro Island and in Timor reported some raised reefs
reaching an altitude up to 600 m. In Atauro, the lowest terraces reaching a maximum of 65 m were dated as last
interglacial (the last 125 ka). Later, additional sequences
of raised reefs were described in the region of Sumba
376
EMERGED REEFS
a better constraint of the sea-level estimates between the
isotopic data and the coral dating. New dates were
obtained from the Huon Peninsula in 2003 by Cutler
et al., using high-precision 231Pa and 230Th dating
methods. They were focused on the Marine Isotope
Stages 5 and 3. These authors provided data regarding
the timing and the magnitude of the relative high stands
and their transition during the MIS 5 sea-level variations.
Moreover, some inputs were made on the relative sealevel variations of the MIS 3, with sea-level estimates
ranging from 60.6 to 36.8 ka from between À85 and
À74 m. In addition, all these studies on coral reefs from
PNG provided information on deep ocean temperatures
(Chappell and Shackleton, 1986; Chappell et al., 1996)
highlighting the differences in the deep ocean temperature
change from MIS 5 (125 ka) and MIS 2 (24 ka) and
between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Cutler et al., 2003).
Pacific: Vanuatu
Vanuatu (see Vanuatu) is an island archipelago located in
the South-West Pacific at the convergent boundary of the
Australian, Pacific, and North Fiji Basin tectonic plates.
Early works performed by Mitchell (1968) in Malakula,
Neef and Veeh (1977) in Efaté, and Jouannic et al.
(1980) and Taylor et al. (1980) in Espiruto Santo and Malakula revealed the presence of several elevated coral reefs.
Even earlier, Stearns (1945) was one of the first scientists
to try to interpret the presence of Pleistocene raised coral
reefs in Espiritu Santo. In Efaté (or Vaté), Neef and Veeh
(1977) identified sea levels of the last 125 ka by dating
these emerged coral reefs. In the North of Malakula, previous works identified six main terraces culminating at
about 350 m but some discrepancies in altitude occur,
probably due to coral reworking and/or errors in altitude
assignment (Mitchell, 1968; Jouannic et al., 1980).
A survey performed in 2001 by Cabioch and Ayliffe provided more recent U/Th coral dating of these raised terraces
and also observed several minor terraces. An estimate of
the sea-level highstands from MIS 3 (55–40 ka) was
given. These sea-level estimates are in good agreement
with the data from PNG (Chappell et al., 1996). The North
of the island of Malakula and the south and the east of the
island of Espiritu Santo are also characterized by a series
of raised terraces which were dated by Jouannic et al.
(1980) and Taylor et al. (1980, 1987, 1990), providing information on vertical motions in relation to the
D’Entrecasteaux Ridge collision (see Chapter Vanuatu).
Moreover, in this area, Taylor et al. (2005) showed the
occurrence of a Late Quaternary cycle of uplift and subsidence in Espiritu Santo over one or two hundred thousand
years, interpreted as resulting from subduction of morphological features at the D’Entrecasteaux Zone.
Pacific: Solomon islands
South of Papua New Guinea and north of Vanuatu, the
Solomon Islands, at the boundary convergence of the
Australian and Pacific tectonic plates, are also characterized by raised reefs. In comparison with studies performed
in PNG and Vanuatu, very little is known about these
raised terraces. Stearns (1945) indicated the presence of
raised reefs in Guadalcanal, then in 1969, Stoddart extensively described the geomorphology of the Solomon
Islands including elevated fringing and barrier reefs. Similarly to the Vanuatu archipelago, coral dating by Taylor
et al. (2005) revealed the occurrence of a Late Quaternary
cycle of uplift and subsidence in the central part of the
New Georgia Island Group interpreted as resulting from
subduction of the Coleman seamount or other prominent
morphological features.
Pacific: Fiji
The islands of Fiji are located on the northern end of the
Lau ridge, an old island arc. Elevated reefs were dated to
the MIS 5 (125-ka highstand) (Nunn et al., 2002). Two
alternative explanations were given by these authors to
explain the elevation of these reefs. The Vanuabalavu
island group could have been affected by the loading on
the lithosphere inducing subsidence and reef uplift or
alternatively it could be from the continuing anticlockwise
rotation of the Fiji platform.
Pacific: Ryukyu
In the North-West Pacific, in the tectonically active region
of the island arc at the boundary between the Amami
Plateau in the Philippine Sea and the Eurasian tectonic
plates, the Ryukyu Islands (see Ryukyu Islands) display
sequences of emerged coral reefs. Kikai-Jima displays
the highest uplift rate. These elevated reefs were described
by several previous authors, and among these, Konishi
(1974) provided Uranium and C14 dating of the five
well-preserved coral terraces covering the period of the
last interglacial period (the last 125 ka). Sugihara et al.
(2003) focused their studies on the four Holocene raised
coral reef terraces reaching an altitude up to 10 m and
showed that these four terraces resulted from successive
seismic uplifts. Sasaki et al. (2004), in the north of Kikai
island, dated the coral terraces reaching an altitude from
15 to 65 m. The Uranium ages showed the occurrence of
several reef sequences ranging from 75 to 51 ka. In addition to these works, older Pleistocene reef formations
(400–500 ka) were described in the Ryukyus by Nakamori
et al. (1995) based on geochronological dating and calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy.
Indian Ocean: Indonesia
In Indonesia (see Indonesian Reefs), at the boundary of
several tectonic plates, many islands display sequences
of raised coral terraces. Chappell and Veeh (1978) in
Atauro Island and in Timor reported some raised reefs
reaching an altitude up to 600 m. In Atauro, the lowest terraces reaching a maximum of 65 m were dated as last
interglacial (the last 125 ka). Later, additional sequences
of raised reefs were described in the region of Sumba
376
EMERGED REEFS