the carbonate factory may alter its sediment budget status
over decades (Perry et al., 2008). Ultimately, depending
on the magnitude and temporal scale of ecological change
(persistence or ephemeral transition), alterations in the
carbonate budget may, or may not, propagate through
the system to yield detectable changes in the geomorphic
system at decadal to centennial timeframes (Kench et al.,
2009).
Summary
The formation and morphological adjustment of coral
reefs and reef sedimentary landforms results from the
dynamic interaction between biological and physical processes, which operate at a range of time and space scales.
Eco-morphodynamics is a conceptual framework that
identifies the major process response linkages between
physical and biological processes which are responsible
for the spatial and temporal dynamics of ecological
communities, physical processes, and geomorphology
(Figure 1). Central to the framework is the importance of
the coral reef “carbonate factory” in providing the building
blocks (skeletal material, sand, and gravels) for construction of reef landforms. The framework also highlights
the multiple extrinsic and intrinsic factors that promote
change in ecological, physical, and geomorphic processes
and products in reef systems.
Eco-morphodynamics provides a conceptual framework to explore: the sensitivity of landforms to perturbations in boundary conditions; thresholds and timescales
of change; and feedbacks, temporal lags, and nonlinearities in the linkages between the physical, ecological, and geological components of reef systems. Currently,
these system sensitivities, thresholds, temporal lags, feedbacks, and timescales of relevance to reef geomorphic
development and change are poorly resolved.
Bibliography
Brown, B. E., and Dunne, R. P., 1988. The impact of coral mining
on coral reefs in the Maldives. Environmental Conservation,
15, 159–165.
Buddemeier, R. W., Kleypas, J. A., and Aronson, R. B., 2004. Coral
reefs and global climate change: potential contributions of climate change to stresses on coral reef ecosystems. Arlington:
Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 44pp.
Chappell, J., 1980. Coral morphology, diversity and reef growth.
Nature, 286, 249–252.
Cowell, P. J., and Thom, B. G., 1994. Morphodynamics of coastal
evolution. In Carter, R. W. G., and Woodroffe, C. D. (eds.),
Coastal Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 33–86.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith, Elder.
Done, T. J., 1982. Patterns in the distribution of coral communities
across the central Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 1, 95–107.
Done, T. J., 1992. Phase shifts in coral reef communities and their
ecological significance. Hydrobiologia, 247, 121–132.
Eakin, C., 1996. Where have all the carbonates gone? A model comparison of calcium carbonate budgets before and after the 1982–
1983 El Nino at Uva Island in the eastern Pacific. Coral Reefs,
15, 109–119.
Flood, P. G., 1986. Sensitivity of coral cays to climatic variations,
southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs, 5, 13–18.
Gourlay, M. R., 1988. Coral cays: products of wave action and geological processes in a biogenic environment. Proceedings, Sixth
International Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, 2, 491–496.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching and the
future of the world’s coral reefs. Australian Journal of Marine
and Freshwater Research, 50, 839–866.
Hubbard, D., Miller, A., and Scaturo, D., 1990. Production and
cycling of calcium carbonate in a shelf-edge reef system (St.
Croix, US Virgin Island): applications to the nature of reef systems in the fossil record. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60,
335–360.
Hughes, T. P., Baird, A. H., Bellwood, D. R., Card, M., Connolly,
S. R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jackson,
J. B. C., Kleypas, J., Lough, J. M., Marshall, P., Nyström, M.,
Palumbi, S. R., Pandolfi, J. M., Rosen, B., and Roughgarden,
J., 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large scale degradation
of a Caribbean coral reef. Science, 265, 1547–1551.
Hughes, T. P., et al., 2003. Climate change, human impacts, and the
resilience of coral reefs. Science, 301, 929–933.
Jackson, J. B. C., 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science, 293, 629–638.
James, C., Orr, J. C., Fabry, V. J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney,
S. C., Feely, R. A., Gnanadesikan, A., Gruber, N., Ishida, A.,
Joos, F., Key, R. M., Lindsay, K., Maier-Reimer, E., Matear,
R., Monfray, P., Mouchet, A., Najjar, R. G., Plattner, G.,
Rodgers, K. B., Sabine, C. L., Sarmiento, J. L., Schlitzer, R.,
Slater, R. D., Totterdell, I. J., Weirig, M- F., Yamanaka, Y., and
Yool, A., 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the
twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.
Nature, 437, 681–686.
Kench, P. S., and Brander, R. W., 2006a. Morphological sensitivity
of reef islands to seasonal climate oscillations: South
Maalhosmadulu atoll, Maldives. Journal of Geophysical
Research, F01001, doi:10.1029/2005JF000323.
Kench, P. S., and Brander, R. W., 2006b. Wave processes on coral
reef flats: implications for reef geomorphology using Australian
case studies. Journal of Coastal Research, 2, 209–223.
Kench, P. S., McLean, R. F., and Nichol, S. L., 2005. New model of
reef-island evolution: Maldives, Indian Ocean. Geology, 33,
145–148.
Kench, P. S., Perry, C. T., and Spencer, T., 2009. Coral reefs. In
Slaymaker, O., Spencer, T., and Embleton-Haman, C. (eds.),
Geomorphology and Global Environmental Change.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Chap. 7, pp. 180–213.
Kennedy, D. M., and Woodroffe, C. D., 2002. Fringing reef growth
and morphology: a review. Earth Science Reviews, 57, 255–277.
Kinsey, D. W., 1983. Standards of performance in coral reef primary
production and carbon turnover. In Barnes, D. J. (ed.), Perspectives on Coral Reefs. Manuka, Australia: Brian Clouston.
pp. 209–220.
Kleypas, J., Buddemeier, R. W., and Gattuso, J. P., 2001. The future
of coral reefs in an age of global change. International Journal of
Earth Sciences, 90, 426–437.
Liddell, W. D., and Ohlhorst, S. L., 1993. Ten years of disturbance
and change on a Jamaican fringing reef. Proceedings, Seventh
International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1, 144–150.
Lidz, B. H., and Hallock, P., 2000. Sedimentary petrology of
a declining reef ecosystem, Florida reef tract (U.S.A.). Journal
of Coastal Research, 16, 675–697.
Maragos, J. E., Baines, G. B. K., and Beveridge, P. J., 1973. Tropical cyclone creates a new land formation on Funafuti atoll. Science, 181, 1161–1164.
Montaggioni, L. F., 2005. History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems
since the last glaciation: Development patterns and controlling
factors. Earth Science Reviews, 71, 1–75.
362
ECO-MORPHODYNAMICS
over decades (Perry et al., 2008). Ultimately, depending
on the magnitude and temporal scale of ecological change
(persistence or ephemeral transition), alterations in the
carbonate budget may, or may not, propagate through
the system to yield detectable changes in the geomorphic
system at decadal to centennial timeframes (Kench et al.,
2009).
Summary
The formation and morphological adjustment of coral
reefs and reef sedimentary landforms results from the
dynamic interaction between biological and physical processes, which operate at a range of time and space scales.
Eco-morphodynamics is a conceptual framework that
identifies the major process response linkages between
physical and biological processes which are responsible
for the spatial and temporal dynamics of ecological
communities, physical processes, and geomorphology
(Figure 1). Central to the framework is the importance of
the coral reef “carbonate factory” in providing the building
blocks (skeletal material, sand, and gravels) for construction of reef landforms. The framework also highlights
the multiple extrinsic and intrinsic factors that promote
change in ecological, physical, and geomorphic processes
and products in reef systems.
Eco-morphodynamics provides a conceptual framework to explore: the sensitivity of landforms to perturbations in boundary conditions; thresholds and timescales
of change; and feedbacks, temporal lags, and nonlinearities in the linkages between the physical, ecological, and geological components of reef systems. Currently,
these system sensitivities, thresholds, temporal lags, feedbacks, and timescales of relevance to reef geomorphic
development and change are poorly resolved.
Bibliography
Brown, B. E., and Dunne, R. P., 1988. The impact of coral mining
on coral reefs in the Maldives. Environmental Conservation,
15, 159–165.
Buddemeier, R. W., Kleypas, J. A., and Aronson, R. B., 2004. Coral
reefs and global climate change: potential contributions of climate change to stresses on coral reef ecosystems. Arlington:
Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 44pp.
Chappell, J., 1980. Coral morphology, diversity and reef growth.
Nature, 286, 249–252.
Cowell, P. J., and Thom, B. G., 1994. Morphodynamics of coastal
evolution. In Carter, R. W. G., and Woodroffe, C. D. (eds.),
Coastal Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 33–86.
Darwin, C., 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
London: Smith, Elder.
Done, T. J., 1982. Patterns in the distribution of coral communities
across the central Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 1, 95–107.
Done, T. J., 1992. Phase shifts in coral reef communities and their
ecological significance. Hydrobiologia, 247, 121–132.
Eakin, C., 1996. Where have all the carbonates gone? A model comparison of calcium carbonate budgets before and after the 1982–
1983 El Nino at Uva Island in the eastern Pacific. Coral Reefs,
15, 109–119.
Flood, P. G., 1986. Sensitivity of coral cays to climatic variations,
southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs, 5, 13–18.
Gourlay, M. R., 1988. Coral cays: products of wave action and geological processes in a biogenic environment. Proceedings, Sixth
International Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, 2, 491–496.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching and the
future of the world’s coral reefs. Australian Journal of Marine
and Freshwater Research, 50, 839–866.
Hubbard, D., Miller, A., and Scaturo, D., 1990. Production and
cycling of calcium carbonate in a shelf-edge reef system (St.
Croix, US Virgin Island): applications to the nature of reef systems in the fossil record. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60,
335–360.
Hughes, T. P., Baird, A. H., Bellwood, D. R., Card, M., Connolly,
S. R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jackson,
J. B. C., Kleypas, J., Lough, J. M., Marshall, P., Nyström, M.,
Palumbi, S. R., Pandolfi, J. M., Rosen, B., and Roughgarden,
J., 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large scale degradation
of a Caribbean coral reef. Science, 265, 1547–1551.
Hughes, T. P., et al., 2003. Climate change, human impacts, and the
resilience of coral reefs. Science, 301, 929–933.
Jackson, J. B. C., 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science, 293, 629–638.
James, C., Orr, J. C., Fabry, V. J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney,
S. C., Feely, R. A., Gnanadesikan, A., Gruber, N., Ishida, A.,
Joos, F., Key, R. M., Lindsay, K., Maier-Reimer, E., Matear,
R., Monfray, P., Mouchet, A., Najjar, R. G., Plattner, G.,
Rodgers, K. B., Sabine, C. L., Sarmiento, J. L., Schlitzer, R.,
Slater, R. D., Totterdell, I. J., Weirig, M- F., Yamanaka, Y., and
Yool, A., 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the
twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.
Nature, 437, 681–686.
Kench, P. S., and Brander, R. W., 2006a. Morphological sensitivity
of reef islands to seasonal climate oscillations: South
Maalhosmadulu atoll, Maldives. Journal of Geophysical
Research, F01001, doi:10.1029/2005JF000323.
Kench, P. S., and Brander, R. W., 2006b. Wave processes on coral
reef flats: implications for reef geomorphology using Australian
case studies. Journal of Coastal Research, 2, 209–223.
Kench, P. S., McLean, R. F., and Nichol, S. L., 2005. New model of
reef-island evolution: Maldives, Indian Ocean. Geology, 33,
145–148.
Kench, P. S., Perry, C. T., and Spencer, T., 2009. Coral reefs. In
Slaymaker, O., Spencer, T., and Embleton-Haman, C. (eds.),
Geomorphology and Global Environmental Change.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Chap. 7, pp. 180–213.
Kennedy, D. M., and Woodroffe, C. D., 2002. Fringing reef growth
and morphology: a review. Earth Science Reviews, 57, 255–277.
Kinsey, D. W., 1983. Standards of performance in coral reef primary
production and carbon turnover. In Barnes, D. J. (ed.), Perspectives on Coral Reefs. Manuka, Australia: Brian Clouston.
pp. 209–220.
Kleypas, J., Buddemeier, R. W., and Gattuso, J. P., 2001. The future
of coral reefs in an age of global change. International Journal of
Earth Sciences, 90, 426–437.
Liddell, W. D., and Ohlhorst, S. L., 1993. Ten years of disturbance
and change on a Jamaican fringing reef. Proceedings, Seventh
International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1, 144–150.
Lidz, B. H., and Hallock, P., 2000. Sedimentary petrology of
a declining reef ecosystem, Florida reef tract (U.S.A.). Journal
of Coastal Research, 16, 675–697.
Maragos, J. E., Baines, G. B. K., and Beveridge, P. J., 1973. Tropical cyclone creates a new land formation on Funafuti atoll. Science, 181, 1161–1164.
Montaggioni, L. F., 2005. History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems
since the last glaciation: Development patterns and controlling
factors. Earth Science Reviews, 71, 1–75.
362
ECO-MORPHODYNAMICS