development in a high-CO 2 world. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
105, 10450–10455.
Maté, J. L., 2003. Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific coast of
Panamá. In Cortés, J. (ed.), Latin American Coral Reefs.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 387–417.
McCauley, D. J., Joyce, F. J., and Lowenstein, J. H., 2008. Effects of
the aquarium fish industry in Costa Rica on populations of the
Cortez rainbow wrasse Thalassoma lucasanum. Ciencias
Marinas, 34, 445–451.
McClanahan, T. R., Weil, E., Cortés, J., Baird, A., and Ateweberhan,
M., 2008. Consequences of coral bleaching for sessile organisms.
In van Oppen, M. J. H., and Lough, J. M. (eds.), Ecological Studies: Coral Bleaching: Patterns, Processes, Causes and Consequences. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 121–138.
Mumby, P. J., and Hastings, A., 2008. The impact of ecosystem connectivity on coral reef resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45,
854–862.
Nyström, M., Graham, N. A. J., Lokrantz, J., and Norström, A. V.,
2008. Capturing the cornerstones of coral reef resilience: linking
theory to practice. Coral Reefs, 27, 795–809.
Ochoa-López, E., Reyes-Bonilla, H., and Ketchum-Mejía, J., 1998.
Effects of sedimentation on coral communities of southern
Socorro Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Ciencias
Marinas, 24, 233–240.
Orr, J. C., et al., 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the
twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.
Nature, 437, 681–686.
Pourtalès, L. F. de, 1875. Corals of the Galápagos Islands. American
Journal of Science and Arts, Series, 3(10), 282–283.
Reaka-Kudla, M. L., Feingold, J. S., and Glynn, P. W., 1996. Experimental studies of rapid bioerosion of coral reefs in the
Galápagos Islands. Coral Reefs, 15, 101–107.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2002. Checklist of valid names and synonyms of
stony corals (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) from the eastern Pacific.
Journal of Natural History, 36, 1–13.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2003. Coral reefs of the Pacific coast of México.
In Cortés, J. (ed.), Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science, pp. 331–349.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., and Barraza, J. E., 2003. Corals and associated
marine communities from El Salvador. In Cortés, J. (ed.),
Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,
pp. 351–360.
Richmond, R. H., 1990. The effects of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation on the dispersal of corals and other marine organisms. In
Glynn, P. W. (ed.), Global Ecological Consequences of the
1982–83 El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 127–140.
Robertson, D. R., and Cramer, K. L., 2009. Shore fishes and biogeographic subdivisions of the Tropical Eastern Pacific. Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 380, 1–17.
Rodríguez-Rubio, E., Schneider, W., and Abarca del Río, R., 2003.
On the seasonal circulation within the Panama Bight derived
from satellite observations of wind, altimetry and sea surface
temperature. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(7), 1410,
doi:10.1029/2002GL016794.
Rogers, C. S., 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reefs organisms to
sedimentation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 62, 185–202.
Scheltema, R. S., 1988. Initial evidence for the transport of
teleplanic larvae of benthic invertebrates across the east Pacific
barrier. Biological Bulletin, 174, 145–152.
Scott, P. J. B., and Risk, M. J., 1988. The effect of Lithophaga
(Bivalvia: Mytilidae) boreholes on the strength of the coral
Porites lobata. Coral Reefs, 7, 145–151.
Stehli, F., and Webb, S., 1985. The Great American Biotic Interchange. New York: Plenum Press.
Stoddart, D. R., 1969. Ecology and morphology of recent coral
reefs. Biological Review, 44, 433–498.
Stramma, L., Johnson, G. C., Sprintall, J., and Mohrholz, V., 2008.
Expanding oxygen-minimum zones in the tropical oceans. Science, 320, 655–658.
Taylor, M. A., and Alfaro, E. J., 2005. Climate of Central America
and the Caribbean. In Oliver, J. E. (ed.), Encyclopedia of World
Climatology. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 183–189.
Verrill, A. E., 1870. Notes on radiata in the museum of Yale College,
number 6: review of the corals and polyps of the west coast of
America. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1, 377–558.
Wang, C., and Fiedler, P., 2006. ENSO variability in the eastern
tropical Pacific: a review. Progress in Oceanography, 69,
239–266.
Wehrtmann, I. S., Cortés, J., and Echeverría-Sáenz, S., 2009.
Marine biodiversity of Costa Rica: perspectives and conclusions.
In Wehrtmann, I. S., and Cortés, J. (eds.), Marine Biodiversity
of Costa Rica, Central America. Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
pp. 521–533.
West, J. M., and Salm, R. V., 2003. Resistance and resilience to coral
bleaching: implications for coral reef conservation and management. Conservation Biology, 17, 956–967.
Willet, S. W., Leben, R. R., and Lavín, M. F., 2006. Eddies and tropical instability waves in the eastern tropical Pacific: a review.
Progress in Oceanography, 69, 218–238.
Zapata, F. A., and Vargas-Ángel, B., 2003. Corals and coral
reefs of the Pacific coast of Colombia. In Cortés, J. (ed.),
Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,
pp. 419–447.
Cross-references
Bioherms and Biostromes
Coral Bleaching
Coral Cay Classification and Evolution
Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth
Diagenesis
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Fringing Reefs
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs
Holocene Reefs: Thickness and Characteristics
Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Upwelling and Coral Reefs
ECHINODERMATA
Maria Byrne
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Definition
Echinodermata is defined as a phylum of marine invertebrates with a spiny skin and radial symmetry.
Introduction
Echinoderms are a conspicuous and diverse component
of the invertebrate fauna of coral reefs and include
358
ECHINODERMATA
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
105, 10450–10455.
Maté, J. L., 2003. Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific coast of
Panamá. In Cortés, J. (ed.), Latin American Coral Reefs.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 387–417.
McCauley, D. J., Joyce, F. J., and Lowenstein, J. H., 2008. Effects of
the aquarium fish industry in Costa Rica on populations of the
Cortez rainbow wrasse Thalassoma lucasanum. Ciencias
Marinas, 34, 445–451.
McClanahan, T. R., Weil, E., Cortés, J., Baird, A., and Ateweberhan,
M., 2008. Consequences of coral bleaching for sessile organisms.
In van Oppen, M. J. H., and Lough, J. M. (eds.), Ecological Studies: Coral Bleaching: Patterns, Processes, Causes and Consequences. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 121–138.
Mumby, P. J., and Hastings, A., 2008. The impact of ecosystem connectivity on coral reef resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45,
854–862.
Nyström, M., Graham, N. A. J., Lokrantz, J., and Norström, A. V.,
2008. Capturing the cornerstones of coral reef resilience: linking
theory to practice. Coral Reefs, 27, 795–809.
Ochoa-López, E., Reyes-Bonilla, H., and Ketchum-Mejía, J., 1998.
Effects of sedimentation on coral communities of southern
Socorro Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Ciencias
Marinas, 24, 233–240.
Orr, J. C., et al., 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the
twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.
Nature, 437, 681–686.
Pourtalès, L. F. de, 1875. Corals of the Galápagos Islands. American
Journal of Science and Arts, Series, 3(10), 282–283.
Reaka-Kudla, M. L., Feingold, J. S., and Glynn, P. W., 1996. Experimental studies of rapid bioerosion of coral reefs in the
Galápagos Islands. Coral Reefs, 15, 101–107.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2002. Checklist of valid names and synonyms of
stony corals (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) from the eastern Pacific.
Journal of Natural History, 36, 1–13.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2003. Coral reefs of the Pacific coast of México.
In Cortés, J. (ed.), Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science, pp. 331–349.
Reyes-Bonilla, H., and Barraza, J. E., 2003. Corals and associated
marine communities from El Salvador. In Cortés, J. (ed.),
Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,
pp. 351–360.
Richmond, R. H., 1990. The effects of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation on the dispersal of corals and other marine organisms. In
Glynn, P. W. (ed.), Global Ecological Consequences of the
1982–83 El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 127–140.
Robertson, D. R., and Cramer, K. L., 2009. Shore fishes and biogeographic subdivisions of the Tropical Eastern Pacific. Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 380, 1–17.
Rodríguez-Rubio, E., Schneider, W., and Abarca del Río, R., 2003.
On the seasonal circulation within the Panama Bight derived
from satellite observations of wind, altimetry and sea surface
temperature. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(7), 1410,
doi:10.1029/2002GL016794.
Rogers, C. S., 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reefs organisms to
sedimentation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 62, 185–202.
Scheltema, R. S., 1988. Initial evidence for the transport of
teleplanic larvae of benthic invertebrates across the east Pacific
barrier. Biological Bulletin, 174, 145–152.
Scott, P. J. B., and Risk, M. J., 1988. The effect of Lithophaga
(Bivalvia: Mytilidae) boreholes on the strength of the coral
Porites lobata. Coral Reefs, 7, 145–151.
Stehli, F., and Webb, S., 1985. The Great American Biotic Interchange. New York: Plenum Press.
Stoddart, D. R., 1969. Ecology and morphology of recent coral
reefs. Biological Review, 44, 433–498.
Stramma, L., Johnson, G. C., Sprintall, J., and Mohrholz, V., 2008.
Expanding oxygen-minimum zones in the tropical oceans. Science, 320, 655–658.
Taylor, M. A., and Alfaro, E. J., 2005. Climate of Central America
and the Caribbean. In Oliver, J. E. (ed.), Encyclopedia of World
Climatology. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 183–189.
Verrill, A. E., 1870. Notes on radiata in the museum of Yale College,
number 6: review of the corals and polyps of the west coast of
America. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sciences, 1, 377–558.
Wang, C., and Fiedler, P., 2006. ENSO variability in the eastern
tropical Pacific: a review. Progress in Oceanography, 69,
239–266.
Wehrtmann, I. S., Cortés, J., and Echeverría-Sáenz, S., 2009.
Marine biodiversity of Costa Rica: perspectives and conclusions.
In Wehrtmann, I. S., and Cortés, J. (eds.), Marine Biodiversity
of Costa Rica, Central America. Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
pp. 521–533.
West, J. M., and Salm, R. V., 2003. Resistance and resilience to coral
bleaching: implications for coral reef conservation and management. Conservation Biology, 17, 956–967.
Willet, S. W., Leben, R. R., and Lavín, M. F., 2006. Eddies and tropical instability waves in the eastern tropical Pacific: a review.
Progress in Oceanography, 69, 218–238.
Zapata, F. A., and Vargas-Ángel, B., 2003. Corals and coral
reefs of the Pacific coast of Colombia. In Cortés, J. (ed.),
Latin American Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,
pp. 419–447.
Cross-references
Bioherms and Biostromes
Coral Bleaching
Coral Cay Classification and Evolution
Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth
Diagenesis
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Fringing Reefs
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs
Holocene Reefs: Thickness and Characteristics
Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Upwelling and Coral Reefs
ECHINODERMATA
Maria Byrne
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Definition
Echinodermata is defined as a phylum of marine invertebrates with a spiny skin and radial symmetry.
Introduction
Echinoderms are a conspicuous and diverse component
of the invertebrate fauna of coral reefs and include
358
ECHINODERMATA