An important point about these forms of erosion are that
the first three occur only when reefs are submerged, while
the fourth occurs only when reefs are exposed to the air,
either by uplift of the land or by falls in sea level.
Summary
The subject of coral skeleton formation has two separate
aspects, reef building and coral growth. Reefs are both
geological structures and living ecosystems. Corals are
often not the primary builders of Palaeozoic reefs, thus
the terms “reefs” and “coral reefs” are not necessarily
interchangeable terms in geological contexts. However,
scleractinian corals are the builders of most Mesozoic
and Cenozoic reefs. The environmental controls on both
are similar, not necessarily the same.
The two great scleractinian innovations of colony formation and algal symbiosis allow corals to build reefs.
These are closely linked, both functionally and in evolutionary terms. Light and temperature are the dominant
parameters.
Light availability is critical for reef-building because of
the dependence of corals on algal symbiosis. In turn, light
availability is regulated by water depth, turbidity and (in
geological time) latitude.
Temperature limits the latitudinal distribution of reefs
and constrains the rate of skeleton formation. For ecological reasons, reef formations are limited to oceans that
do not cool below 18
C for extended periods of time.
However, most corals can grow where temperature
commonly falls to 14
C. High-temperature limits to both
reef growth and corals are similar, approximately 31
C.
Rates of coral and reef growth are very different. Rates
of coral growth vary enormously according to the type of
colony formation. Rates of reef growth are dependent on
rates of erosion. This occurs by four processes, physical
erosion, changes in water chemistry, bioerosion and rainwater dissolution.
Bibliography
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nyström, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Crossland, C. J., 1988. Latitudinal comparisons of coral reef structure and function. In Proceedings of the Sixth International
Coral Reef Symposium, Vol. 1, pp. 221–226.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching and the
future of the world’s coral reefs. Marine and Freshwater
Research, 50, 839–866.
Hopley, D., Smithers, S. G., and Parnell, K. E., 2007. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Development, Diversity and
Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Little, A. F., van Oppen, M. J. H., and Willis, B. L., 2004. Flexibility
in algal endosymbioses shapes growth in reef corals. Science,
304, 1492–1494.
Montaggioni, L. F., 2005. History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems
since the last glaciation: development patterns and controlling
factors. Earth-Science Reviews, 71, 1–75.
Muscatine, L., 1990. The role of symbiotic algae in carbon and
energy flux in reef corals. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Ecosystems of
the World. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 75–87.
Rowan, R., and Powers, D. A., 1992. Ribosomal RNA sequences
and the diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae).
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 89,
3639–3643.
Smith, S. V., 1983. Coral reef calcification. In Barnes, D. J. (ed.),
Perspectives in Coral Reefs. Townsville: Australian Institute of
Marine Science, pp. 240–247.
Trench, R. K., 1979. The cell biology of plant–animal symbosis.
Annual Reviews of Plant Physiology, 30, 485–531.
Ulstrup, K. E., and Van Oppen, M. J. H., 2003. Geographic and
habitat partitioning of genetically distinct zooxanthellae
(Symbiodinium) in Acropora corals on the Great Barrier Reef.
Molecular Ecology, 12, 3477–3484.
Vecsei, A., 2004. A new estimate of global reefal carbonate production including the fore-reefs. Global and Planetary Change,
43, 1–18.
Veron, J. E. N., 2000. Corals of the World. Australia: Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Vol. 1.
Veron, J. E. N., and Minchin, P. R., 1992. Correlations between sea
surface temperature, circulation patterns and the distribution of
hermatypic corals of Japan. Continental Shelf Research, 12,
835–857.
Cross-references
Acropora
Algae, Coralline
Algae-Macro
Aragonite
Coral Reef, Definition
Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth
Ecomorphology
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Sediment Durability
CORALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS ON
GROWTH
Terry Done
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, QLD,
Australia
Definitions
Coral growth: The establishment, survival, and increase in
size of living zooxanthellate corals as individuals,
populations, and communities.
Coral calcification: The biological process of the synthesis
of calcium carbonate by corals. Its rate is reported in
gm cm
À2 year
À1
. A given rate of calcification is manifest
in a coral skeleton as its rate of linear extension (cm
year
À1
) of a particular density (gm cm
À3 ).
Environment: The physical, chemical, nutritional, and
ecological milieu in which corals grow.
Microenvironment: “Environment” impinging upon an
individual coral in situ.
CORALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS ON GROWTH
281
the first three occur only when reefs are submerged, while
the fourth occurs only when reefs are exposed to the air,
either by uplift of the land or by falls in sea level.
Summary
The subject of coral skeleton formation has two separate
aspects, reef building and coral growth. Reefs are both
geological structures and living ecosystems. Corals are
often not the primary builders of Palaeozoic reefs, thus
the terms “reefs” and “coral reefs” are not necessarily
interchangeable terms in geological contexts. However,
scleractinian corals are the builders of most Mesozoic
and Cenozoic reefs. The environmental controls on both
are similar, not necessarily the same.
The two great scleractinian innovations of colony formation and algal symbiosis allow corals to build reefs.
These are closely linked, both functionally and in evolutionary terms. Light and temperature are the dominant
parameters.
Light availability is critical for reef-building because of
the dependence of corals on algal symbiosis. In turn, light
availability is regulated by water depth, turbidity and (in
geological time) latitude.
Temperature limits the latitudinal distribution of reefs
and constrains the rate of skeleton formation. For ecological reasons, reef formations are limited to oceans that
do not cool below 18
C for extended periods of time.
However, most corals can grow where temperature
commonly falls to 14
C. High-temperature limits to both
reef growth and corals are similar, approximately 31
C.
Rates of coral and reef growth are very different. Rates
of coral growth vary enormously according to the type of
colony formation. Rates of reef growth are dependent on
rates of erosion. This occurs by four processes, physical
erosion, changes in water chemistry, bioerosion and rainwater dissolution.
Bibliography
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nyström, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Crossland, C. J., 1988. Latitudinal comparisons of coral reef structure and function. In Proceedings of the Sixth International
Coral Reef Symposium, Vol. 1, pp. 221–226.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching and the
future of the world’s coral reefs. Marine and Freshwater
Research, 50, 839–866.
Hopley, D., Smithers, S. G., and Parnell, K. E., 2007. The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Development, Diversity and
Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Little, A. F., van Oppen, M. J. H., and Willis, B. L., 2004. Flexibility
in algal endosymbioses shapes growth in reef corals. Science,
304, 1492–1494.
Montaggioni, L. F., 2005. History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems
since the last glaciation: development patterns and controlling
factors. Earth-Science Reviews, 71, 1–75.
Muscatine, L., 1990. The role of symbiotic algae in carbon and
energy flux in reef corals. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Ecosystems of
the World. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 75–87.
Rowan, R., and Powers, D. A., 1992. Ribosomal RNA sequences
and the diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae).
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 89,
3639–3643.
Smith, S. V., 1983. Coral reef calcification. In Barnes, D. J. (ed.),
Perspectives in Coral Reefs. Townsville: Australian Institute of
Marine Science, pp. 240–247.
Trench, R. K., 1979. The cell biology of plant–animal symbosis.
Annual Reviews of Plant Physiology, 30, 485–531.
Ulstrup, K. E., and Van Oppen, M. J. H., 2003. Geographic and
habitat partitioning of genetically distinct zooxanthellae
(Symbiodinium) in Acropora corals on the Great Barrier Reef.
Molecular Ecology, 12, 3477–3484.
Vecsei, A., 2004. A new estimate of global reefal carbonate production including the fore-reefs. Global and Planetary Change,
43, 1–18.
Veron, J. E. N., 2000. Corals of the World. Australia: Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Vol. 1.
Veron, J. E. N., and Minchin, P. R., 1992. Correlations between sea
surface temperature, circulation patterns and the distribution of
hermatypic corals of Japan. Continental Shelf Research, 12,
835–857.
Cross-references
Acropora
Algae, Coralline
Algae-Macro
Aragonite
Coral Reef, Definition
Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth
Ecomorphology
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Sediment Durability
CORALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS ON
GROWTH
Terry Done
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, QLD,
Australia
Definitions
Coral growth: The establishment, survival, and increase in
size of living zooxanthellate corals as individuals,
populations, and communities.
Coral calcification: The biological process of the synthesis
of calcium carbonate by corals. Its rate is reported in
gm cm
À2 year
À1
. A given rate of calcification is manifest
in a coral skeleton as its rate of linear extension (cm
year
À1
) of a particular density (gm cm
À3 ).
Environment: The physical, chemical, nutritional, and
ecological milieu in which corals grow.
Microenvironment: “Environment” impinging upon an
individual coral in situ.
CORALS: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS ON GROWTH
281