Ravindran, J., and Raghukumar, C., 2006. Pink-line syndrome,
a physiological crisis in the scleractinian coral Porites lutea.
Marine Biology, 149(2), 347–356.
Singh, H. S., 2002. Marine protected areas in India Status of coastal
wetlands and their conservation. Gandhihagar, Gujarart: GEER
Foundation, pp. 62.
Subba Rao, N. V., 1998. Mollusca. In Director, (ed.), Faunal
Diversity in India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp.
104–117.
Tipper, G. H., 1911. The geology of the Andaman Islands. Memoirs
of Geological Survey of India, 35, 4.
Turner, J. R., Vousden, D., Klaus, R., Satyanarayana, C., Fenner,
D., Venkataraman, K., Rajan, P. T., and Subba Rao, N. V.,
2001. Report of Phase I: Remote sensing and Rapid Site
Assessment Survey, April 2001. In Report on Coral Reef ecosystems of the Andaman Islands, Government of India and
United National Development Programme, Global Environment Facility, pp. 76, with 8 Appendices and 55 Figures and
Plates.
Venkataraman, K., 2000. Status survey of the Gulf of Mannar coral
reefs following the 1998 bleaching event, with implications for
reserve management. In Proceedings 9th International Coral
Ref Symposium, Bali, Indonesia, 23–27 October 2000, Vol. 2,
pp. 841–846.
Venkataraman, K., 2003. Natural Aquatic Ecosystems of India,
National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan, Thematic Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata, pp. 1–272.
Venkataraman, K., 2006. Impact of the recent tsunami on the marine
biodiversity of India. ENVIS News Letter Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata, 12(1&2), 5–11.
Venkataraman, K., and Alfred, J. R. B., 1998. Coral reefs. In Alfred
J. R. B., Sanyal, A. K., and Das, A. K. (eds.), Faunal Diversity in
India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp. 391–395.
Venkataraman, K., and Krishnamoorthy, P., 1998. Crustacea. In
Alfred, J. R. B., Sanyal, A. K. and Das, A. K. (eds.), Faunal
Diversity in India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India,
pp. 133–144.
Venkataraman, K., and Rajan, P. T., 1995. Coral reefs of Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Park and crown-of-thorn starfish phenomenon. In Gangwar, B., and Chandra, K. (eds.), Proceedings
of Island Ecosystem and Sustainable development, Port Blair:
Andaman Science Association and Department of Science &
Technology, pp. 124–132.
Venkataraman, K., Satyanarayana, C. H., Alfred, J. R. B., and
Wolstenholme, J., 2003. Handbook on Hard Corals of India.
Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp. 1–266.
Vora, K. H., Wagle, B. G., Veerayya, M., Almeida, F., and
Karisiddaiah, S. M., 1996. 1300 km long late PleistoceneHolocene shelf edge barrier reef system along the western continental shelf of India: Occurrence and significance. Marine
Geology, 134(1–2), 145–162.
Wilkinson, C. (ed.), 1998. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998.
Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Science,
Web version: http://www.aims.gov.au/scr1998.
Wilkinson, C. (ed.), 2000. Status of Coral Reefs of the World:
2000. Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine
Science.
Cross-references
Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector
Indian Ocean Reefs
Maldives
Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane
Tsunami
Western Indian Ocean
CORALS: BIOLOGY, SKELETAL DEPOSITION, AND
REEF-BUILDING
John E. N. Veron
Oak Valley, Australia
Definition
Scleractinian corals (Phylum Coelenterata, Class
Anthozoa, Order Scleractinia – the true stony corals alive
today) have been building coral reefs for 250 million
years, reefs that are the biggest structures ever made by
living organisms.
Introduction
Scleractinian corals have a simple structure. Their bodies
are sac-like polyps that usually grow together to form colonies. They have a body wall with only two cell layers and
a skeleton made of calcium carbonate which is actually
outside their body so that the living polyp grows on its
skeleton (Figure 1). This simple structure allows most
corals to form complex colonies that are readily modified
to suit a wide range of environments. Modern coral reefs
are principally made of calcium carbonate that has been
derived from coral skeletons and cemented into a waveresistant structure by coralline algae (see Coral Reef,
Definition). Whereas coralline algae generally have
a wider distribution range than corals, both flourish in
shallow, turbulent, well-lit environments, which is where
highly consolidated reefs best grow. Growth rates of coral
colonies and of reefs are very different and are discussed
below: coral growth rate is a result of each colony’s individual physiological performance within its particular environmental setting and reef growth is a net outcome of history,
hydrodynamics, ecosystem processes, and the functional
roles of various guilds of species – both constructive and
destructive. Moreover, there is wide diversity of entities
referred to as “reef,” with the contribution of corals likewise
varying in importance: these are reviewed briefly here.
Reefs and coral reefs
The term “reef ” can mean different things to different people. To most geologists and palaeontologists, reefs are
rock formations. To most biologists, reefs are a veneer of
living organisms forming an ecosystem, which is both
complex and fragile. These two concepts of reefs can seem
as remote from each other as forests are from coal
deposits, yet they share a common past. Reefs, the geological structures, are the direct products of living ecosystems
and as such their formation has always been controlled by
the sorts of events that control other ecosystems, both
marine and terrestrial.
When considering ancient reefs, it is important to distinguish these “reefs” from the “coral reefs” of today.
Corals are not the main builders of all reefs: many ancient
reefs, especially those of the Palaeozoic, were not built
just by corals but by a wide array of other taxa including
CORALS: BIOLOGY, SKELETAL DEPOSITION, AND REEF-BUILDING
275
a physiological crisis in the scleractinian coral Porites lutea.
Marine Biology, 149(2), 347–356.
Singh, H. S., 2002. Marine protected areas in India Status of coastal
wetlands and their conservation. Gandhihagar, Gujarart: GEER
Foundation, pp. 62.
Subba Rao, N. V., 1998. Mollusca. In Director, (ed.), Faunal
Diversity in India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp.
104–117.
Tipper, G. H., 1911. The geology of the Andaman Islands. Memoirs
of Geological Survey of India, 35, 4.
Turner, J. R., Vousden, D., Klaus, R., Satyanarayana, C., Fenner,
D., Venkataraman, K., Rajan, P. T., and Subba Rao, N. V.,
2001. Report of Phase I: Remote sensing and Rapid Site
Assessment Survey, April 2001. In Report on Coral Reef ecosystems of the Andaman Islands, Government of India and
United National Development Programme, Global Environment Facility, pp. 76, with 8 Appendices and 55 Figures and
Plates.
Venkataraman, K., 2000. Status survey of the Gulf of Mannar coral
reefs following the 1998 bleaching event, with implications for
reserve management. In Proceedings 9th International Coral
Ref Symposium, Bali, Indonesia, 23–27 October 2000, Vol. 2,
pp. 841–846.
Venkataraman, K., 2003. Natural Aquatic Ecosystems of India,
National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan, Thematic Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata, pp. 1–272.
Venkataraman, K., 2006. Impact of the recent tsunami on the marine
biodiversity of India. ENVIS News Letter Zoological Survey of
India, Kolkata, 12(1&2), 5–11.
Venkataraman, K., and Alfred, J. R. B., 1998. Coral reefs. In Alfred
J. R. B., Sanyal, A. K., and Das, A. K. (eds.), Faunal Diversity in
India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp. 391–395.
Venkataraman, K., and Krishnamoorthy, P., 1998. Crustacea. In
Alfred, J. R. B., Sanyal, A. K. and Das, A. K. (eds.), Faunal
Diversity in India. Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India,
pp. 133–144.
Venkataraman, K., and Rajan, P. T., 1995. Coral reefs of Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Park and crown-of-thorn starfish phenomenon. In Gangwar, B., and Chandra, K. (eds.), Proceedings
of Island Ecosystem and Sustainable development, Port Blair:
Andaman Science Association and Department of Science &
Technology, pp. 124–132.
Venkataraman, K., Satyanarayana, C. H., Alfred, J. R. B., and
Wolstenholme, J., 2003. Handbook on Hard Corals of India.
Kolkata: Zoological Survey of India, pp. 1–266.
Vora, K. H., Wagle, B. G., Veerayya, M., Almeida, F., and
Karisiddaiah, S. M., 1996. 1300 km long late PleistoceneHolocene shelf edge barrier reef system along the western continental shelf of India: Occurrence and significance. Marine
Geology, 134(1–2), 145–162.
Wilkinson, C. (ed.), 1998. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998.
Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Science,
Web version: http://www.aims.gov.au/scr1998.
Wilkinson, C. (ed.), 2000. Status of Coral Reefs of the World:
2000. Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine
Science.
Cross-references
Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector
Indian Ocean Reefs
Maldives
Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane
Tsunami
Western Indian Ocean
CORALS: BIOLOGY, SKELETAL DEPOSITION, AND
REEF-BUILDING
John E. N. Veron
Oak Valley, Australia
Definition
Scleractinian corals (Phylum Coelenterata, Class
Anthozoa, Order Scleractinia – the true stony corals alive
today) have been building coral reefs for 250 million
years, reefs that are the biggest structures ever made by
living organisms.
Introduction
Scleractinian corals have a simple structure. Their bodies
are sac-like polyps that usually grow together to form colonies. They have a body wall with only two cell layers and
a skeleton made of calcium carbonate which is actually
outside their body so that the living polyp grows on its
skeleton (Figure 1). This simple structure allows most
corals to form complex colonies that are readily modified
to suit a wide range of environments. Modern coral reefs
are principally made of calcium carbonate that has been
derived from coral skeletons and cemented into a waveresistant structure by coralline algae (see Coral Reef,
Definition). Whereas coralline algae generally have
a wider distribution range than corals, both flourish in
shallow, turbulent, well-lit environments, which is where
highly consolidated reefs best grow. Growth rates of coral
colonies and of reefs are very different and are discussed
below: coral growth rate is a result of each colony’s individual physiological performance within its particular environmental setting and reef growth is a net outcome of history,
hydrodynamics, ecosystem processes, and the functional
roles of various guilds of species – both constructive and
destructive. Moreover, there is wide diversity of entities
referred to as “reef,” with the contribution of corals likewise
varying in importance: these are reviewed briefly here.
Reefs and coral reefs
The term “reef ” can mean different things to different people. To most geologists and palaeontologists, reefs are
rock formations. To most biologists, reefs are a veneer of
living organisms forming an ecosystem, which is both
complex and fragile. These two concepts of reefs can seem
as remote from each other as forests are from coal
deposits, yet they share a common past. Reefs, the geological structures, are the direct products of living ecosystems
and as such their formation has always been controlled by
the sorts of events that control other ecosystems, both
marine and terrestrial.
When considering ancient reefs, it is important to distinguish these “reefs” from the “coral reefs” of today.
Corals are not the main builders of all reefs: many ancient
reefs, especially those of the Palaeozoic, were not built
just by corals but by a wide array of other taxa including
CORALS: BIOLOGY, SKELETAL DEPOSITION, AND REEF-BUILDING
275