governments are not focused on long-term reef conservation outcomes, focusing more on short-term development
issues or resource use; this means that matters such as
long-term sustainability, adequate resourcing for relevant
agencies, and funding for conservation are often of lower
priority.
The conservation of the world’s coral reefs is today at
“cross-roads”; paraphrasing Kingsford et al. (2009)
1. In most areas, there is sufficient knowledge to implement effective policy, but effective implementation
largely depends upon education, political will, community aspirations, and social and economic capacity;
2. As the knowledge of what is required for coral reef
conservation has increased, so have the pressures; and
3. Proactive reef conservation measures that aim to build
resilience to better cope with the likely pressures are
considerably more cost efficient and are often less risky
than waiting until the pressures have occurred and then
trying to address them through reactive management.
Websites
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority http://www.
gbrmpa.gov.au
Rezoning the Great Barrier Reef http://www.
gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/management/
representative_areas_program
Vulnerability Assessment to Climate Change http://
www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/climate_change_vulnerability_
assessment/climate_change_vulnerability_assessment
International Maritime Organization http://www.imo.org/
home.asp
Locally
Managed
Marine
Areas
http://www.
lmmanetwork.org
MPA News http://www.depts.washington.edu/mpanews/
ProtectPlanetOcean http://www.protectplanetocean.org/
United Nations Atlas of the Oceans http://www.wri.org/
publication/reefs-risk-map-based-indicator-potentialthreats-worlds-coral-reefs
United Nations, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, http://www.
un.org/depts/los/general_assembly/general_assembly_
reports.htm
World Conservation Union (IUCN) Global Marine
Programme http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/
marine/
Bibliography
Day, J. C., 2006. Marine protected areas. In Lockwood, M.,
Worboys, G., and Kothari, A. (eds.), Managing Protected Areas:
a Global Guide. London: Earthscan, pp. 603–634.
Day, J. C., 2008. Planning and managing the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park. In Hutchings, Kingsford, and Hoegh-Gulberg
(eds.). The Great Barrier Reef – Biology, Environment and Management. CSIRO and Springer, pp. 114–121.
Dudley, N., (ed.), 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area
Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Ecological Applications, 2003. The science of marine reserves.
Ecological Applications, 13(supplement), 3–228.
Hardin, G., 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859),
1243–1248.
Kelleher, G., and Kenchington, R. A., 1992. Guidelines for
Establishing Marine Protected Areas: A Marine Conservation
and Development Report. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN.
Kingsford, R. T., Watson J. E. M., Lundquist C. J., Venter O., et al,
2009. Major conservation policy issues for biodiversity in Oceania. Conservation Biology, 23(4), 834–840.
Salm, R. V., Clark, J. R., and Sirila, E., 2000. Marine and Coastal
Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers, 3rd
edn. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN.
Sobel, J., and Dalgren, C., 2004. Marine Reserves: A Guide to Science, Design and Use. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Wilkinson, C., 2008. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008.
Townsville, Australia: Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, 296p.
Cross-references
Acanthaster planci
Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise on Reef Flat Zonation
and Productivity
Climate Change: Impact On Coral Reef Coasts
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Climate Change and Coral Reefs
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Engineering On Coral Reefs With Emphasis On Pacific Reefs
FORAM Index
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals
Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs
Infrastructure and Reef Islands
Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs
Nutrient Pollution/Eutrophication
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Reefs at Risk: Map-Based Analyses of Threats to Coral Reefs
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Tsunami
COOK, JAMES (1728–1779)
James Bowen
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
James Cook was the first of the great explorers of the
eighteenth century to present a comprehensive account
of the almost invisible reefs in the great open expanses
of the Pacific Ocean. Intensified speculation had been
mounting on such hazards to navigation when the
destructive power of coral reefs was given sensational
publicity in Cook’s account of his successful discovery
of the mysterious and elusive Great South Land, following the British scientific expedition in command of the
Endeavour to Tahiti in 1769 for scientists to observe
the Transit of Venus.
While subsequently exploring the unknown eastern
coast of New Holland, on June 11, 1770, his ship crashed
into one of the invisible reefs and the eventual discovery
236
COOK, JAMES (1728–1779)
issues or resource use; this means that matters such as
long-term sustainability, adequate resourcing for relevant
agencies, and funding for conservation are often of lower
priority.
The conservation of the world’s coral reefs is today at
“cross-roads”; paraphrasing Kingsford et al. (2009)
1. In most areas, there is sufficient knowledge to implement effective policy, but effective implementation
largely depends upon education, political will, community aspirations, and social and economic capacity;
2. As the knowledge of what is required for coral reef
conservation has increased, so have the pressures; and
3. Proactive reef conservation measures that aim to build
resilience to better cope with the likely pressures are
considerably more cost efficient and are often less risky
than waiting until the pressures have occurred and then
trying to address them through reactive management.
Websites
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority http://www.
gbrmpa.gov.au
Rezoning the Great Barrier Reef http://www.
gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/management/
representative_areas_program
Vulnerability Assessment to Climate Change http://
www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/climate_change_vulnerability_
assessment/climate_change_vulnerability_assessment
International Maritime Organization http://www.imo.org/
home.asp
Locally
Managed
Marine
Areas
http://www.
lmmanetwork.org
MPA News http://www.depts.washington.edu/mpanews/
ProtectPlanetOcean http://www.protectplanetocean.org/
United Nations Atlas of the Oceans http://www.wri.org/
publication/reefs-risk-map-based-indicator-potentialthreats-worlds-coral-reefs
United Nations, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, http://www.
un.org/depts/los/general_assembly/general_assembly_
reports.htm
World Conservation Union (IUCN) Global Marine
Programme http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/
marine/
Bibliography
Day, J. C., 2006. Marine protected areas. In Lockwood, M.,
Worboys, G., and Kothari, A. (eds.), Managing Protected Areas:
a Global Guide. London: Earthscan, pp. 603–634.
Day, J. C., 2008. Planning and managing the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park. In Hutchings, Kingsford, and Hoegh-Gulberg
(eds.). The Great Barrier Reef – Biology, Environment and Management. CSIRO and Springer, pp. 114–121.
Dudley, N., (ed.), 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area
Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Ecological Applications, 2003. The science of marine reserves.
Ecological Applications, 13(supplement), 3–228.
Hardin, G., 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859),
1243–1248.
Kelleher, G., and Kenchington, R. A., 1992. Guidelines for
Establishing Marine Protected Areas: A Marine Conservation
and Development Report. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN.
Kingsford, R. T., Watson J. E. M., Lundquist C. J., Venter O., et al,
2009. Major conservation policy issues for biodiversity in Oceania. Conservation Biology, 23(4), 834–840.
Salm, R. V., Clark, J. R., and Sirila, E., 2000. Marine and Coastal
Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers, 3rd
edn. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN.
Sobel, J., and Dalgren, C., 2004. Marine Reserves: A Guide to Science, Design and Use. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Wilkinson, C., 2008. Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008.
Townsville, Australia: Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, 296p.
Cross-references
Acanthaster planci
Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise on Reef Flat Zonation
and Productivity
Climate Change: Impact On Coral Reef Coasts
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity
Climate Change and Coral Reefs
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
Engineering On Coral Reefs With Emphasis On Pacific Reefs
FORAM Index
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals
Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs
Infrastructure and Reef Islands
Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs
Nutrient Pollution/Eutrophication
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification
Reefs at Risk: Map-Based Analyses of Threats to Coral Reefs
Temperature Change: Bleaching
Tsunami
COOK, JAMES (1728–1779)
James Bowen
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
James Cook was the first of the great explorers of the
eighteenth century to present a comprehensive account
of the almost invisible reefs in the great open expanses
of the Pacific Ocean. Intensified speculation had been
mounting on such hazards to navigation when the
destructive power of coral reefs was given sensational
publicity in Cook’s account of his successful discovery
of the mysterious and elusive Great South Land, following the British scientific expedition in command of the
Endeavour to Tahiti in 1769 for scientists to observe
the Transit of Venus.
While subsequently exploring the unknown eastern
coast of New Holland, on June 11, 1770, his ship crashed
into one of the invisible reefs and the eventual discovery
236
COOK, JAMES (1728–1779)