4. Ownership issues (for most marine areas worldwide,
open-access resources are poorly or insufficiently
regulated).
When used in the context of the above management and
planning approaches, the following management tools are
widely used by MPA managers:
Zoning – Spatial allocation using zoning is an accepted
practice within many MPAs around the world. Zoning
can separate conflicting uses and provide for high levels
of protection for specific areas while allowing a variety
of uses, including fishing, to continue in other zones.
Permits and licensing – When used in conjunction with
a zoning plan and other management tools, permits,
and licences can:
(a) further regulate use in high-use or sensitive areas;
(b) encourage responsible behavior in users and assist
in monitoring activities; and
(c) require the collection of data for planning and
management.
Certain permit applications may also trigger the
need for a comprehensive environmental impact
assessment to be undertaken.
Enforcement and surveillance – Without an effective
compliance and enforcement program, an MPA will
not achieve its objectives. In time, its regulations will
neither be accepted nor complied with by users or
locals. Implementation and enforcement of regulations
may include checking locations, size restrictions, bag
limits, fishing season, or gear type, and can protect habitats, by-catch species, and spawning stock.
Enforcement and compliance can be very expensive
because of the costs of resources, including trained personnel and access to appropriate vessels, aircraft, or
specialist equipment. Enforcement should not, however, be considered as the only management approach
or the tool of last resort.
Public education and community engagement – These are
both integral to effective marine management. Communicators must build awareness of the threats and instil an
acceptance for change. Effective public education and
enlisting the assistance of key stakeholder groups, combined with enforcement and compliance, can result in
valuable outcomes.
Research and monitoring – Research and monitoring can
help MPA managers to diagnose problems, prioritize
and implement solutions, assess the results and effectiveness of management actions, and forecast future
conditions. Having the best available information for
decision making helps ensure effective marine management of an MPA.
The above are only some of the main management tools
used in coral reef conservation; other spatial tools include
plans of management, specific closures, or special management areas. Non–spatial management tools include
effective legislation, advisory committees, industry partnerships, best practice guidelines, or user fees such as
the “Environmental Management Charge” applied in the
GBRMP.
Key lessons learnt
1. In most MPAs worldwide, there are real challenges in
maintaining existing levels of marine management,
let alone coping with rapidly escalating levels of use or
increasingly complex issues, such as climate change.
Finding the right balance between protection and sustainable use is essential, and issues like cumulative
impacts are becoming increasingly important to address.
2. An integrated management framework is important for
effective marine management. Without it, intersectoral
conflicts, incompatible activities, and inefficient systems will prevail. Integration across use sectors, levels
of government, and the land–sea boundary are all fundamental to effective ocean governance and marine
conservation.
3. Manage at the ecosystem level, not for single species.
Most fishery management efforts focused on managing
a single target species have failed. The more appropriate and effective approach requires managing all components and ecological processes as part of ecosystembased management.
4. Local communities and indigenous people should be
involved in marine management; successful examples
of effective conservation have comprised a combination of “top-down” approaches (through government
working with appropriate agencies or organizations),
combined with effective “bottom-up” input involving
community engagement. Widespread public support
is essential if marine conservation efforts are to be
successful and sustainable.
5. Apply the precautionary principle. We will never know
precisely how coral reef ecosystems function or how
they will cope with pressures such as climate change.
But enough is known to cautiously proceed with management, comprehensively using the best available science and expert opinion (not waiting for perfect
information) and adaptively managing as we continually learn.
6. Ensure that all MPA planning is open, transparent, collaborative, and adaptive, using the best available scientific, traditional, and local knowledge. Accommodate
the economic, social, and cultural aspirations of communities within the ecological constraints.
7. Better technology can be a “double-edged sword” –
while it may assist management (e.g., remote sensing,
satellite imagery), it can also mean that users are able
to access areas and resources that previously were
inaccessible.
What is the future for reef conservation?
As the global population increases markedly, the pressures
on coral reefs are increasing significantly as are the difficulties in ensuring reef conservation. Regrettably, many
CONSERVATION AND MARINE PROTECTION AREAS
235
open-access resources are poorly or insufficiently
regulated).
When used in the context of the above management and
planning approaches, the following management tools are
widely used by MPA managers:
Zoning – Spatial allocation using zoning is an accepted
practice within many MPAs around the world. Zoning
can separate conflicting uses and provide for high levels
of protection for specific areas while allowing a variety
of uses, including fishing, to continue in other zones.
Permits and licensing – When used in conjunction with
a zoning plan and other management tools, permits,
and licences can:
(a) further regulate use in high-use or sensitive areas;
(b) encourage responsible behavior in users and assist
in monitoring activities; and
(c) require the collection of data for planning and
management.
Certain permit applications may also trigger the
need for a comprehensive environmental impact
assessment to be undertaken.
Enforcement and surveillance – Without an effective
compliance and enforcement program, an MPA will
not achieve its objectives. In time, its regulations will
neither be accepted nor complied with by users or
locals. Implementation and enforcement of regulations
may include checking locations, size restrictions, bag
limits, fishing season, or gear type, and can protect habitats, by-catch species, and spawning stock.
Enforcement and compliance can be very expensive
because of the costs of resources, including trained personnel and access to appropriate vessels, aircraft, or
specialist equipment. Enforcement should not, however, be considered as the only management approach
or the tool of last resort.
Public education and community engagement – These are
both integral to effective marine management. Communicators must build awareness of the threats and instil an
acceptance for change. Effective public education and
enlisting the assistance of key stakeholder groups, combined with enforcement and compliance, can result in
valuable outcomes.
Research and monitoring – Research and monitoring can
help MPA managers to diagnose problems, prioritize
and implement solutions, assess the results and effectiveness of management actions, and forecast future
conditions. Having the best available information for
decision making helps ensure effective marine management of an MPA.
The above are only some of the main management tools
used in coral reef conservation; other spatial tools include
plans of management, specific closures, or special management areas. Non–spatial management tools include
effective legislation, advisory committees, industry partnerships, best practice guidelines, or user fees such as
the “Environmental Management Charge” applied in the
GBRMP.
Key lessons learnt
1. In most MPAs worldwide, there are real challenges in
maintaining existing levels of marine management,
let alone coping with rapidly escalating levels of use or
increasingly complex issues, such as climate change.
Finding the right balance between protection and sustainable use is essential, and issues like cumulative
impacts are becoming increasingly important to address.
2. An integrated management framework is important for
effective marine management. Without it, intersectoral
conflicts, incompatible activities, and inefficient systems will prevail. Integration across use sectors, levels
of government, and the land–sea boundary are all fundamental to effective ocean governance and marine
conservation.
3. Manage at the ecosystem level, not for single species.
Most fishery management efforts focused on managing
a single target species have failed. The more appropriate and effective approach requires managing all components and ecological processes as part of ecosystembased management.
4. Local communities and indigenous people should be
involved in marine management; successful examples
of effective conservation have comprised a combination of “top-down” approaches (through government
working with appropriate agencies or organizations),
combined with effective “bottom-up” input involving
community engagement. Widespread public support
is essential if marine conservation efforts are to be
successful and sustainable.
5. Apply the precautionary principle. We will never know
precisely how coral reef ecosystems function or how
they will cope with pressures such as climate change.
But enough is known to cautiously proceed with management, comprehensively using the best available science and expert opinion (not waiting for perfect
information) and adaptively managing as we continually learn.
6. Ensure that all MPA planning is open, transparent, collaborative, and adaptive, using the best available scientific, traditional, and local knowledge. Accommodate
the economic, social, and cultural aspirations of communities within the ecological constraints.
7. Better technology can be a “double-edged sword” –
while it may assist management (e.g., remote sensing,
satellite imagery), it can also mean that users are able
to access areas and resources that previously were
inaccessible.
What is the future for reef conservation?
As the global population increases markedly, the pressures
on coral reefs are increasing significantly as are the difficulties in ensuring reef conservation. Regrettably, many
CONSERVATION AND MARINE PROTECTION AREAS
235