diseases, and coral predators (such as Crown-of-Thorns
starfish – see Acanthaster Planci) all have direct and
flow-on effects to coral reef communities (Wilson et al.,
2006; Riegl and Purkis, 2009). Impacts and recovery are
variable and repeated disturbances with reduced intervals
between them are likely to increasingly compromise the
structural integrity and community makeup of these ecosystems (Done et al., 2007; Feary et al., 2007; Wakeford
et al., 2008). Because of such multiple climate and local
physical stressors on coral reefs, a more holistic modeling
approach is required to projecting future status of coral
reef ecosystems (Sarmineto et al., 2004).
Potential actions
Drastic and immediate reductions of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere are the first step to
stabilizing global climate and the climatic environment of
coral reefs. Coral reefs have been described as one of the
“world’s failing ecosystems and one of the most persuasive examples of the effects of global environmental damage” (Downs et al., 2005, p. 486). What other actions, if
any, can assist the maintenance of present-day coral reefs
into the future? First, protection of these ecosystems from
local direct stresses enhances their resilience and recovery
from the additional stresses of climate change. This has
led to many calls for greatly expanded networks of marine
protected areas (Bellwood et al., 2004; Pandolfi et al.,
2005; Mora et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2006; Hughes
et al., 2007). At all levels, it is the addition of humans into
the equation of coral reefs that is causing the problems
(Downs et al., 2005; Mora and Ginsburg, 2008) and it
has been argued that we only lack the commitment to
implement appropriate protection strategies (Sale, 2008).
Second, it is clear that some coral reefs and parts of coral
reefs are more resistant to climatic stresses such as
bleaching and some are more resilient as demonstrated
by relatively rapid recovery. Such reefs and locations
within reefs are clear targets for enhanced protection (West
and Salm, 2003; McClanahan et al., 2007a; Graham et al.,
2007, 2008; Diaz-Pulido et al., 2009). Third, climate
change and increased likelihood of significant disturbances need to be incorporated into selecting, designing,
and managing marine protected areas (Baker et al., 2008;
Game et al., 2008). Fourth, we need to improve early
warning systems, seasonal climatic outlooks, and monitoring of physical and biological conditions on reefs
(Weeks et al., 2008; Maynard et al., 2009; Spillman and
Alves, 2009). Finally, we need improved GCMs for the
tropics (Shukla et al., 2009) including better spatial resolution to allow better and more reliable predictions to be
made for specific reef provinces (Donner et al., 2005,
2009).
Summary
Coral reef ecosystems are highly vulnerable to stresses
associated with a changing climate. These stresses are
superimposed on local stresses in many regions that have
already resulted in significant degradation in the goods
and services that healthy coral reefs provide (Buddemeier
et al., 2004). Coral reefs are unlikely to disappear, but
in the future they are likely to calcify less and there will
be fewer reefs that are able to sustain the necessary
reef framework that supports many thousands of marine
organisms with a consequent loss in marine biodiversity
(Guinotte et al., 2003). Our understanding of the full
consequences of a rapidly changing climate and ocean
chemistry for coral reef ecosystems is still limited and,
unfortunately, the experiment is occurring in real time in
the real world. The consequences of anthropogenic climate change for coral reefs are inequitable. The countries
most responsible for anthropogenic climate change produce 6–11 times more CO 2 per person than the more than
400 million people living close to coral reefs (Donner and
Potere, 2007). It is, however, these communities that
will suffer most from the loss of the goods and services
provided by healthy coral reef ecosystems.
Bibliography
Achituv, Y., and Dubinsky, Z., 1990. Evolution and zoogeography
of coral reefs. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Ecosystems of the World,
Vol. 25: Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1–9.
Andrefouet, S., and Riegl, B., 2004. Remote sensing: a key tool for
interdisciplinary assessment of coral reef processes. Coral Reefs,
23, 1–4.
Anthony, K. R. N., Kline, D. I., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S., and
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2008. Ocean acidification causes
bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America, 105, 17442–17446.
Baker, A. C., Glynn, P. W., and Riegl, B., 2008. Climate change and
coral reef bleaching: an ecological assessment of long-term
impacts, recovery trends and future outlook. Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, 80, 435–471.
Barnes, D. J., and Chalker, B. E., 1990. Calcification and photosynthesis in reef-building coral and algae. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.),
Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 25: Coral Reefs. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 109–131.
Barton, A. D., and Casey, K. S., 2005. Climatological context for
large-scale coral bleaching. Coral Reefs, 24, 536–554.
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nystrom, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Berkelmans, R., 2002. Time-integrated thermal bleaching thresholds of reefs and their variation on the Great Barrier Reef.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 229, 73–82.
Berkelmans, R., De’ath, G., Kininmonth, S., and Skirving, W. J.,
2004. A comparison of the 1998 and 2002 coral bleaching events
on the Great Barrier Reef: spatial correlation, patterns, and predictions. Coral Reefs, 23, 74–83.
Berkelmans, R., and van Oppen, M. J. H., 2006. The role of zooxanthellae in the thermal tolerance of corals: a ‘nugget of hope’ for
coral reefs in an era of climate change. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B, 273, 2305–2312, doi:10.1098/
rspb.2006.3567.
Boyett, H. V., Bourne, D. G., and Willis, B. L., 2007. Elevated temperature and light enhance progression and spread of black band
disease on staghorn corals of the Great Barrier Reef. Marine
Biology, 151, 1711–1720.
Brohan, P., Kennedy, J. J., Harris, I., Tett, S. F. B., and Jones, P. D.,
2006. Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed
CLIMATE CHANGE AND CORAL REEFS
205
starfish – see Acanthaster Planci) all have direct and
flow-on effects to coral reef communities (Wilson et al.,
2006; Riegl and Purkis, 2009). Impacts and recovery are
variable and repeated disturbances with reduced intervals
between them are likely to increasingly compromise the
structural integrity and community makeup of these ecosystems (Done et al., 2007; Feary et al., 2007; Wakeford
et al., 2008). Because of such multiple climate and local
physical stressors on coral reefs, a more holistic modeling
approach is required to projecting future status of coral
reef ecosystems (Sarmineto et al., 2004).
Potential actions
Drastic and immediate reductions of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere are the first step to
stabilizing global climate and the climatic environment of
coral reefs. Coral reefs have been described as one of the
“world’s failing ecosystems and one of the most persuasive examples of the effects of global environmental damage” (Downs et al., 2005, p. 486). What other actions, if
any, can assist the maintenance of present-day coral reefs
into the future? First, protection of these ecosystems from
local direct stresses enhances their resilience and recovery
from the additional stresses of climate change. This has
led to many calls for greatly expanded networks of marine
protected areas (Bellwood et al., 2004; Pandolfi et al.,
2005; Mora et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2006; Hughes
et al., 2007). At all levels, it is the addition of humans into
the equation of coral reefs that is causing the problems
(Downs et al., 2005; Mora and Ginsburg, 2008) and it
has been argued that we only lack the commitment to
implement appropriate protection strategies (Sale, 2008).
Second, it is clear that some coral reefs and parts of coral
reefs are more resistant to climatic stresses such as
bleaching and some are more resilient as demonstrated
by relatively rapid recovery. Such reefs and locations
within reefs are clear targets for enhanced protection (West
and Salm, 2003; McClanahan et al., 2007a; Graham et al.,
2007, 2008; Diaz-Pulido et al., 2009). Third, climate
change and increased likelihood of significant disturbances need to be incorporated into selecting, designing,
and managing marine protected areas (Baker et al., 2008;
Game et al., 2008). Fourth, we need to improve early
warning systems, seasonal climatic outlooks, and monitoring of physical and biological conditions on reefs
(Weeks et al., 2008; Maynard et al., 2009; Spillman and
Alves, 2009). Finally, we need improved GCMs for the
tropics (Shukla et al., 2009) including better spatial resolution to allow better and more reliable predictions to be
made for specific reef provinces (Donner et al., 2005,
2009).
Summary
Coral reef ecosystems are highly vulnerable to stresses
associated with a changing climate. These stresses are
superimposed on local stresses in many regions that have
already resulted in significant degradation in the goods
and services that healthy coral reefs provide (Buddemeier
et al., 2004). Coral reefs are unlikely to disappear, but
in the future they are likely to calcify less and there will
be fewer reefs that are able to sustain the necessary
reef framework that supports many thousands of marine
organisms with a consequent loss in marine biodiversity
(Guinotte et al., 2003). Our understanding of the full
consequences of a rapidly changing climate and ocean
chemistry for coral reef ecosystems is still limited and,
unfortunately, the experiment is occurring in real time in
the real world. The consequences of anthropogenic climate change for coral reefs are inequitable. The countries
most responsible for anthropogenic climate change produce 6–11 times more CO 2 per person than the more than
400 million people living close to coral reefs (Donner and
Potere, 2007). It is, however, these communities that
will suffer most from the loss of the goods and services
provided by healthy coral reef ecosystems.
Bibliography
Achituv, Y., and Dubinsky, Z., 1990. Evolution and zoogeography
of coral reefs. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Ecosystems of the World,
Vol. 25: Coral Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1–9.
Andrefouet, S., and Riegl, B., 2004. Remote sensing: a key tool for
interdisciplinary assessment of coral reef processes. Coral Reefs,
23, 1–4.
Anthony, K. R. N., Kline, D. I., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S., and
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2008. Ocean acidification causes
bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America, 105, 17442–17446.
Baker, A. C., Glynn, P. W., and Riegl, B., 2008. Climate change and
coral reef bleaching: an ecological assessment of long-term
impacts, recovery trends and future outlook. Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, 80, 435–471.
Barnes, D. J., and Chalker, B. E., 1990. Calcification and photosynthesis in reef-building coral and algae. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.),
Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 25: Coral Reefs. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 109–131.
Barton, A. D., and Casey, K. S., 2005. Climatological context for
large-scale coral bleaching. Coral Reefs, 24, 536–554.
Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., Folke, C., and Nystrom, M., 2004.
Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
Berkelmans, R., 2002. Time-integrated thermal bleaching thresholds of reefs and their variation on the Great Barrier Reef.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 229, 73–82.
Berkelmans, R., De’ath, G., Kininmonth, S., and Skirving, W. J.,
2004. A comparison of the 1998 and 2002 coral bleaching events
on the Great Barrier Reef: spatial correlation, patterns, and predictions. Coral Reefs, 23, 74–83.
Berkelmans, R., and van Oppen, M. J. H., 2006. The role of zooxanthellae in the thermal tolerance of corals: a ‘nugget of hope’ for
coral reefs in an era of climate change. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B, 273, 2305–2312, doi:10.1098/
rspb.2006.3567.
Boyett, H. V., Bourne, D. G., and Willis, B. L., 2007. Elevated temperature and light enhance progression and spread of black band
disease on staghorn corals of the Great Barrier Reef. Marine
Biology, 151, 1711–1720.
Brohan, P., Kennedy, J. J., Harris, I., Tett, S. F. B., and Jones, P. D.,
2006. Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed
CLIMATE CHANGE AND CORAL REEFS
205