Tipton, W. J., and Meibaum, R. A., 1981. An Aerial Radiological
and Photographic Survey of Eleven Atolls and Two Islands
Within the Northern Marshall Islands (July-Nov. 1978). Prepared by EG&G Electronics for the U.S. Dept. of Energy EFF1183–1753, UC-41, June 1981. DOE Pacific Area Support
Office, Las Vegas, and National Information Service, 5285 Port
Royal Rd, Springfield, VA, pp. 22161.
Todd, R. W., and Post, R., 1954. Smaller Foraminifera from
Bikini Drill Holes. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
260-N.
Tracey, J. I., and Ladd, H. S., 1974. Quaternary history of Eniwetok
and Bikini Atolls, Marshall Islands. In Proceedings of the
Second International Coral Reef Symposium. Brisbane, 2,
pp. 537–550.
Tracey, J. I., Ladd, H. S., and Hoffmeister, J. E., 1948. Reefs of
Bikini, Marshall Islands. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America, 59, 861–878.
Vander Velde, N., and Vander Velde, B., 2003. A Review of
the Birds of Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands with Recent Observations. Unpublished report for Bikini Atoll Local Government,
Majuro.
Von Arx, W. S., 1954 .Circulation systems of Bikini and Rongelap
lagoons. Bikini and Nearby Atolls Part 2: Oceanography (Physical). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-A.
Weisgall, J. M., 1994. Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at
Bikini Atoll. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.
Wells, J. W., 1954a. Fossil Corals from Bikini Drill Holes. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-P.
Wells, J. W., 1954b. Recent Corals of the Marshall Islands. Bikini
and Nearby Atolls Part 1: Oceanography (Biologic). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-I.
Cross-references
Algae, Coralline
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Atolls
Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands
Foraminifera
Geomorphic Zonation
Lagoon Circulation
Mururoa Atoll
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Patch Reefs: Lidar Morphometric Analysis
Reef Drilling
Reef Flats
Reef Structure
Spurs and Grooves
Wave Set-Up
Waves and Wave-Driven Currents
BINDING ORGANISMS
Raphael A. J. Wust
James Cook University, Queensland, Australia
Definition and introduction
Coral reef environments host many organisms that
actively precipitate mineral matter and encrust or bind sedimentary particles together. In reef systems, waves,
storms, and boring organisms constantly produce loose
material (mostly skeletal debris), but reef organisms often
need firm substrates on which to settle. Binding and
encrusting organisms such as encrusting sponges (Knott
et al., 2006; Turon et al., 1998), foraminifers (Machado
and Moraes, 2002; Perrin, 2009), or algae stabilize the
loose carbonate grains and thus cement the reef body.
The most important encrusting organisms of modern reefs
are the light-dependent calcareous red algae (known
also as coralline algae), but many other calcareous encrusting organisms exist including polychaetes, phoronid
worms, chaetognaths (arrow worms), holothurianschordates (ascidians), foraminifera, corals, bivalves,
algae, and bryozoans. These organisms bind sedimentary
particles to create a living framework or shelter or the
binding process is purely a by-product of the organisms’
digestion and scavenging of the sedimentary environment
for food. Although in most modern reefal environments,
binding organisms are in the minority, they were responsible for building entire bioherms or reef systems in the geological past and thus during certain eras, binding
organisms were much more widespread and common than
today. However, even in modern times, binding organisms
are critically important as they contribute calcium carbonates to the reef framework (Bianchi et al., 1995; Logan,
1961; Mallela, 2007; Perry, 2000), bind particles and rubble and thus stabilize the substrate (Fischer et al., 2000;
Krasnow and Taghon, 1997; Rasmussen et al., 1993;
Rasser and Riegl, 2002), and promote larval recruits and
offer nutrients and habitats for other species such as bacteria, algae, and foraminifera (Davies et al., 1992, 1998;
Maneveldt et al., 2006; Riemann and Helmke, 2002).
Duration of binding depends on several factors and few
data are available. Preliminary stabilization by seagrass,
uncalcified algae, or sponges may be rapid due to their
fast growth, but these preliminary stabilizations last only
1 month to a few months (Rasser and Riegl, 2002), whilst
rigid binding by encrusting coralline algae can take place
within seven months. Interlocking of branched coralline
algal crusts may take place within a few years, or within
1 year, depending on the growth rates of the particular species. In addition, binding activity that contributes to rapid
encrusting and cementation is approximately double in
fore-reef settings than in back-reef settings (Perry, 1999;
Rasser and Riegl, 2002).
Algal structures
Reefal environments contain many different algal communities pertinent to binding and accreting carbonate material. Algae form intricate growth patterns and species are
often overlapping such as encrusting red algae or bluegreen boring and epiphytic algae (Dean and Eggleston,
1975). The distribution and growth of these and other
encrusting organisms depend on factors such as environment (fore reef, lagoon, etc.), substrate composition (soft
sediments, corals, etc.), water depth and temperature, light
level, turbidity, wave and current energy, and sediment
influx (Mallela, 2007; Perry, 2000; Rasser and Riegl,
2002). Some encrusting algae commonly grow around
136
BINDING ORGANISMS
and Photographic Survey of Eleven Atolls and Two Islands
Within the Northern Marshall Islands (July-Nov. 1978). Prepared by EG&G Electronics for the U.S. Dept. of Energy EFF1183–1753, UC-41, June 1981. DOE Pacific Area Support
Office, Las Vegas, and National Information Service, 5285 Port
Royal Rd, Springfield, VA, pp. 22161.
Todd, R. W., and Post, R., 1954. Smaller Foraminifera from
Bikini Drill Holes. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
260-N.
Tracey, J. I., and Ladd, H. S., 1974. Quaternary history of Eniwetok
and Bikini Atolls, Marshall Islands. In Proceedings of the
Second International Coral Reef Symposium. Brisbane, 2,
pp. 537–550.
Tracey, J. I., Ladd, H. S., and Hoffmeister, J. E., 1948. Reefs of
Bikini, Marshall Islands. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America, 59, 861–878.
Vander Velde, N., and Vander Velde, B., 2003. A Review of
the Birds of Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands with Recent Observations. Unpublished report for Bikini Atoll Local Government,
Majuro.
Von Arx, W. S., 1954 .Circulation systems of Bikini and Rongelap
lagoons. Bikini and Nearby Atolls Part 2: Oceanography (Physical). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-A.
Weisgall, J. M., 1994. Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at
Bikini Atoll. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.
Wells, J. W., 1954a. Fossil Corals from Bikini Drill Holes. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-P.
Wells, J. W., 1954b. Recent Corals of the Marshall Islands. Bikini
and Nearby Atolls Part 1: Oceanography (Biologic). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 260-I.
Cross-references
Algae, Coralline
Atoll Islands (Motu)
Atolls
Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands
Foraminifera
Geomorphic Zonation
Lagoon Circulation
Mururoa Atoll
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction
Patch Reefs: Lidar Morphometric Analysis
Reef Drilling
Reef Flats
Reef Structure
Spurs and Grooves
Wave Set-Up
Waves and Wave-Driven Currents
BINDING ORGANISMS
Raphael A. J. Wust
James Cook University, Queensland, Australia
Definition and introduction
Coral reef environments host many organisms that
actively precipitate mineral matter and encrust or bind sedimentary particles together. In reef systems, waves,
storms, and boring organisms constantly produce loose
material (mostly skeletal debris), but reef organisms often
need firm substrates on which to settle. Binding and
encrusting organisms such as encrusting sponges (Knott
et al., 2006; Turon et al., 1998), foraminifers (Machado
and Moraes, 2002; Perrin, 2009), or algae stabilize the
loose carbonate grains and thus cement the reef body.
The most important encrusting organisms of modern reefs
are the light-dependent calcareous red algae (known
also as coralline algae), but many other calcareous encrusting organisms exist including polychaetes, phoronid
worms, chaetognaths (arrow worms), holothurianschordates (ascidians), foraminifera, corals, bivalves,
algae, and bryozoans. These organisms bind sedimentary
particles to create a living framework or shelter or the
binding process is purely a by-product of the organisms’
digestion and scavenging of the sedimentary environment
for food. Although in most modern reefal environments,
binding organisms are in the minority, they were responsible for building entire bioherms or reef systems in the geological past and thus during certain eras, binding
organisms were much more widespread and common than
today. However, even in modern times, binding organisms
are critically important as they contribute calcium carbonates to the reef framework (Bianchi et al., 1995; Logan,
1961; Mallela, 2007; Perry, 2000), bind particles and rubble and thus stabilize the substrate (Fischer et al., 2000;
Krasnow and Taghon, 1997; Rasmussen et al., 1993;
Rasser and Riegl, 2002), and promote larval recruits and
offer nutrients and habitats for other species such as bacteria, algae, and foraminifera (Davies et al., 1992, 1998;
Maneveldt et al., 2006; Riemann and Helmke, 2002).
Duration of binding depends on several factors and few
data are available. Preliminary stabilization by seagrass,
uncalcified algae, or sponges may be rapid due to their
fast growth, but these preliminary stabilizations last only
1 month to a few months (Rasser and Riegl, 2002), whilst
rigid binding by encrusting coralline algae can take place
within seven months. Interlocking of branched coralline
algal crusts may take place within a few years, or within
1 year, depending on the growth rates of the particular species. In addition, binding activity that contributes to rapid
encrusting and cementation is approximately double in
fore-reef settings than in back-reef settings (Perry, 1999;
Rasser and Riegl, 2002).
Algal structures
Reefal environments contain many different algal communities pertinent to binding and accreting carbonate material. Algae form intricate growth patterns and species are
often overlapping such as encrusting red algae or bluegreen boring and epiphytic algae (Dean and Eggleston,
1975). The distribution and growth of these and other
encrusting organisms depend on factors such as environment (fore reef, lagoon, etc.), substrate composition (soft
sediments, corals, etc.), water depth and temperature, light
level, turbidity, wave and current energy, and sediment
influx (Mallela, 2007; Perry, 2000; Rasser and Riegl,
2002). Some encrusting algae commonly grow around
136
BINDING ORGANISMS