use changes associated with human development. Toxic
blooms occur in tidal fresh and brackish portions of the estuary, with a spectrum of toxicities on exposed estuarine fauna
as well as bird and mammal consumers: diarrhea, nausea,
and respiratory distress are common, while fish and shellfish mortalities can result from both exposure to toxin and
low dissolved oxygen concentrations associated with
high-biomass blooms of cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates,
raphidophytes, and macroalgae. Although many bloomforming species are favored in nutrient-rich estuaries, there
are several physical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms within estuaries and cells that can overlap to allow
growth and concentration of both toxic and nontoxic species to ultimately adversely affect estuarine fauna and larger
consumers.
Bibliography
Anderson, D. A., Glibert, P. M., and Burkholder, J. M., 2002. Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries, 25, 704–726.
Chu, Z., Jin, X., Yang, B., and Zeng, Q., 2007. Buoyancy regulation
of Microcystis flos-aquae during phosphorus-limited and
nitrogen-limited growth. Journal of Plankton Research, 29,
739–745.
Figueiras, F. G., Wyatt, T., Alvarez-Salgado, X. A., and Jenkinson,
I. R., 1995. Advection, diffusion, and patch development in the
Rias Baixas. In Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard, E., Gentien, P.,
and Marcaillou, C. (eds.), Harmful Algal Blooms. Paris: Lavoisier, Intercept, pp. 579–584.
Fistarol, G. O., Legrand, and Granéli, E., 2003. Allelopathic effect
of Prymnesium parvum on a natural plankton community.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 255, 115–125.
Fistarol, G. O., Legrand, C., Selander, E., Hummert, C., Stolte, W.,
and Granéli, E., 2004. Allelopathy in Alexandrium spp.: effect
on a natural plankton community and on algal monocultures.
Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 35, 45–56.
Fryxell, G. A., 1983. Survival Strategies of the Algae. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Gobler, C. J., Lonsdale, D. J., and Boyer, G. L., 2005. A review of
the causes, effects, and potential management of harmful brown
tide blooms caused by Aureococcus anophagefferens
(Hargreaves et Sieburth). Estuaries and Coasts, 28, 726–749.
Handy, S. M., Coyne, K. J., Portune, K. J., Demir, E., Doblin, M. A.,
Hare, C. E., Cary, S. C., and Hutchins, D. A., 2005. Evaluating
vertical migration behavior of harmful raphidophytes in the Delaware inland bays utilizing quantitative real-time PCR. Aquatic
Microbial Ecology, 40, 121–132.
Heisler, J., Glibert, P., Burkholder, J., Anderson, D., Cochlan, W.,
Dennison, W., Dortch, Q., Gobler, C., Heil, C., Humphries, E.,
Lewitus, A., Magnien, R., Marshall, H., Sellner, K., Stockwell,
D., Stoecker, D., and Suddleson, M., 2008. Eutrophication and
harmful algal blooms: a scientific consensus. Harmful Algae,
8, 3–13.
Kamykowski, D., Milligan, E. J., and Reed, R. E., 1998. Relationships between geotaxis/photo-taxis and diel vertical migration
in autotrophic Dinoflagellates. Journal of Plankton Research,
20, 1781–1796.
Kemp, W. M., and Boynton, W. R., 1992. Benthic-pelagic interactions: nutrient and oxygen dynamics. In Smith, D. E., Leffler,
M., and Mackiernan, G. (eds.), Oxygen Dynamics in the Chesapeake Bay A Synthesis of Recent Research. College Park, Maryland: Maryland Sea Grant Book, pp. 149–221.
Kim, C. S., Lee, S. G., Lee, C. K., Kim, H. G., and Jung, J., 1999.
Reactive oxygen species as causative agents in the
ichthyotoxicity of the red tide Dinoflagellate Cochlodinium
polykrikoides. Journal of Plankton Research, 21, 2105–2115.
Kubanek, J., Snell, T. W., and Pirkle, C., 2007. Chemical defense of
the red tide Dinoflagellate Karenia brevis against Rotifer grazing. Limnology and Oceanography, 52, 1026–1035.
Linkov, I., Fristachi, A., Satterstrom, F. K., Shifrin, A., Steevens, J.,
Clyde, G. A., Jr., and Rice, G., 2007. Harmful cyanobacterial
blooms. In Linkov, I., Wenning, R. J., and Kiker, G. A. (eds.),
Managing Critical Infrastructure Risks, NATO Science for
Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 207–242.
Loftus, M. E., Subba-Rao, D. V., and Seliger, H. H., 1972. Growth
and dissipation of Phytoplankton in Chesapeake Bay. I. Response
to a large pulse of rainfall. Chesapeake Science, 13, 282–299.
Malone, T., Kemp, W. M., Ducklow, H., Boynton, W., Tuttle, J., and
Jonas, R., 1986. Lateral variation in the production and fate of
phytoplankton in a partially stratified estuary. Marine Ecology
Progress Series, 32, 149–160.
Marshall, J. A., de Salas, M., Oda, T., and Hallegraeff, G., 2005.
Superoxide production by marine microalgae. Marine Biology,
147, 533–540.
Nagle, D. G., and Paul, V. J., 1999. Production of secondary metabolites by filamentous tropical marine cyanobacteria: ecological
functions of the compounds. Journal of Phycology, 35,
1412–1421.
Pearson, L., Mihali, T., Moffitt, M., Kellmann, R., and Neilan, B.,
2010. On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the
cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin, and
cylindrospermopsin. Marine Drugs, 8, 1650–1680.
Prince, E. K., Myers, T. L., and Kubanek, J., 2008. Effects of harmful algal blooms on competitors: allelopathic mechanisms of the
red tide Dinoflagellate “Karenia brevis”. Limnology and Oceanography, 53, 531–541.
Sellner, K. G., and Brownlee, D. C., 1990. Dinoflagellatemicrozooplankton interactions in Chesapeake Bay. In Granéli,
E., Sundström, B., Edler, L., and Anderson, D. M. (eds.), Toxic
Marine Phytoplankton. New York: Elsevier, pp. 221–226.
Sellner, K. G., Doucette, G. J., and Kirkpatrick, G., 2003.
Harmful algal blooms: causes, impacts, and detection. Journal of
Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 30, 383–406.
Suikkanen, S., Fistarol, G. O., and Granéli, E., 2004. Allelopathic
effects of the baltic cyanobacteria Nodularia spumdigena,
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Anabaena lemmermannii on
algal monocultures. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology
and Ecology, 308, 85–101.
Suikkanen, S., Laamanen, M., and Huttunen, M., 2007. Long-term
changes in summer Phytoplankton communities of the open Northern Baltic Sea. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Science, 71, 580–592.
Tang, Y. Z., and Gobler, C. J., 2010. Allelopathic effects of
Cochlodinium polykrikoides isolates and blooms from the Estuaries of Long Island, New York, on co-occurring Phytoplankton.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 406, 19–31.
Tang, Y. Z., and Gobler, C. J., 2011. The green macroalga, Ulva
lactuca, inhibits the growth of seven common harmful algal
bloom species via allelopathy. Harmful Algae, 10, 480–488.
Tyler, M. A., and Heinbokel, J. F., 1985. Cycles of red water and
encystment of Gymnodinium pseudopalustre in the Chesapeake
Bay: effects of hydrography and grazing. In Anderson, D. M.,
White, A. W., and Baden, D. G. (eds.), Toxic Dinoflagellates.
New York: Elsevier, pp. 213–218.
Wang, D.-Z., 2008. Neurotoxins from marine Dinoflagellates:
a brief review. Marine Drugs, 6, 349–371.
Wang, R., Xiao, H., Zhang, P., Qu, L., Cai, H., and Tang, X., 2007.
Allelopathic effects of Ulva pertusa, Corallina pilulifera, and
Sargassum thunbergii on the growth of the Dinoflagellates
Heterosigma akashiwo and Alexandrium tamarense. Journal of
Applied Phycology, 19, 109–121.
716
TOXIC BLOOMS
blooms occur in tidal fresh and brackish portions of the estuary, with a spectrum of toxicities on exposed estuarine fauna
as well as bird and mammal consumers: diarrhea, nausea,
and respiratory distress are common, while fish and shellfish mortalities can result from both exposure to toxin and
low dissolved oxygen concentrations associated with
high-biomass blooms of cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates,
raphidophytes, and macroalgae. Although many bloomforming species are favored in nutrient-rich estuaries, there
are several physical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms within estuaries and cells that can overlap to allow
growth and concentration of both toxic and nontoxic species to ultimately adversely affect estuarine fauna and larger
consumers.
Bibliography
Anderson, D. A., Glibert, P. M., and Burkholder, J. M., 2002. Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries, 25, 704–726.
Chu, Z., Jin, X., Yang, B., and Zeng, Q., 2007. Buoyancy regulation
of Microcystis flos-aquae during phosphorus-limited and
nitrogen-limited growth. Journal of Plankton Research, 29,
739–745.
Figueiras, F. G., Wyatt, T., Alvarez-Salgado, X. A., and Jenkinson,
I. R., 1995. Advection, diffusion, and patch development in the
Rias Baixas. In Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard, E., Gentien, P.,
and Marcaillou, C. (eds.), Harmful Algal Blooms. Paris: Lavoisier, Intercept, pp. 579–584.
Fistarol, G. O., Legrand, and Granéli, E., 2003. Allelopathic effect
of Prymnesium parvum on a natural plankton community.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 255, 115–125.
Fistarol, G. O., Legrand, C., Selander, E., Hummert, C., Stolte, W.,
and Granéli, E., 2004. Allelopathy in Alexandrium spp.: effect
on a natural plankton community and on algal monocultures.
Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 35, 45–56.
Fryxell, G. A., 1983. Survival Strategies of the Algae. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Gobler, C. J., Lonsdale, D. J., and Boyer, G. L., 2005. A review of
the causes, effects, and potential management of harmful brown
tide blooms caused by Aureococcus anophagefferens
(Hargreaves et Sieburth). Estuaries and Coasts, 28, 726–749.
Handy, S. M., Coyne, K. J., Portune, K. J., Demir, E., Doblin, M. A.,
Hare, C. E., Cary, S. C., and Hutchins, D. A., 2005. Evaluating
vertical migration behavior of harmful raphidophytes in the Delaware inland bays utilizing quantitative real-time PCR. Aquatic
Microbial Ecology, 40, 121–132.
Heisler, J., Glibert, P., Burkholder, J., Anderson, D., Cochlan, W.,
Dennison, W., Dortch, Q., Gobler, C., Heil, C., Humphries, E.,
Lewitus, A., Magnien, R., Marshall, H., Sellner, K., Stockwell,
D., Stoecker, D., and Suddleson, M., 2008. Eutrophication and
harmful algal blooms: a scientific consensus. Harmful Algae,
8, 3–13.
Kamykowski, D., Milligan, E. J., and Reed, R. E., 1998. Relationships between geotaxis/photo-taxis and diel vertical migration
in autotrophic Dinoflagellates. Journal of Plankton Research,
20, 1781–1796.
Kemp, W. M., and Boynton, W. R., 1992. Benthic-pelagic interactions: nutrient and oxygen dynamics. In Smith, D. E., Leffler,
M., and Mackiernan, G. (eds.), Oxygen Dynamics in the Chesapeake Bay A Synthesis of Recent Research. College Park, Maryland: Maryland Sea Grant Book, pp. 149–221.
Kim, C. S., Lee, S. G., Lee, C. K., Kim, H. G., and Jung, J., 1999.
Reactive oxygen species as causative agents in the
ichthyotoxicity of the red tide Dinoflagellate Cochlodinium
polykrikoides. Journal of Plankton Research, 21, 2105–2115.
Kubanek, J., Snell, T. W., and Pirkle, C., 2007. Chemical defense of
the red tide Dinoflagellate Karenia brevis against Rotifer grazing. Limnology and Oceanography, 52, 1026–1035.
Linkov, I., Fristachi, A., Satterstrom, F. K., Shifrin, A., Steevens, J.,
Clyde, G. A., Jr., and Rice, G., 2007. Harmful cyanobacterial
blooms. In Linkov, I., Wenning, R. J., and Kiker, G. A. (eds.),
Managing Critical Infrastructure Risks, NATO Science for
Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 207–242.
Loftus, M. E., Subba-Rao, D. V., and Seliger, H. H., 1972. Growth
and dissipation of Phytoplankton in Chesapeake Bay. I. Response
to a large pulse of rainfall. Chesapeake Science, 13, 282–299.
Malone, T., Kemp, W. M., Ducklow, H., Boynton, W., Tuttle, J., and
Jonas, R., 1986. Lateral variation in the production and fate of
phytoplankton in a partially stratified estuary. Marine Ecology
Progress Series, 32, 149–160.
Marshall, J. A., de Salas, M., Oda, T., and Hallegraeff, G., 2005.
Superoxide production by marine microalgae. Marine Biology,
147, 533–540.
Nagle, D. G., and Paul, V. J., 1999. Production of secondary metabolites by filamentous tropical marine cyanobacteria: ecological
functions of the compounds. Journal of Phycology, 35,
1412–1421.
Pearson, L., Mihali, T., Moffitt, M., Kellmann, R., and Neilan, B.,
2010. On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the
cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin, and
cylindrospermopsin. Marine Drugs, 8, 1650–1680.
Prince, E. K., Myers, T. L., and Kubanek, J., 2008. Effects of harmful algal blooms on competitors: allelopathic mechanisms of the
red tide Dinoflagellate “Karenia brevis”. Limnology and Oceanography, 53, 531–541.
Sellner, K. G., and Brownlee, D. C., 1990. Dinoflagellatemicrozooplankton interactions in Chesapeake Bay. In Granéli,
E., Sundström, B., Edler, L., and Anderson, D. M. (eds.), Toxic
Marine Phytoplankton. New York: Elsevier, pp. 221–226.
Sellner, K. G., Doucette, G. J., and Kirkpatrick, G., 2003.
Harmful algal blooms: causes, impacts, and detection. Journal of
Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 30, 383–406.
Suikkanen, S., Fistarol, G. O., and Granéli, E., 2004. Allelopathic
effects of the baltic cyanobacteria Nodularia spumdigena,
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Anabaena lemmermannii on
algal monocultures. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology
and Ecology, 308, 85–101.
Suikkanen, S., Laamanen, M., and Huttunen, M., 2007. Long-term
changes in summer Phytoplankton communities of the open Northern Baltic Sea. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Science, 71, 580–592.
Tang, Y. Z., and Gobler, C. J., 2010. Allelopathic effects of
Cochlodinium polykrikoides isolates and blooms from the Estuaries of Long Island, New York, on co-occurring Phytoplankton.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 406, 19–31.
Tang, Y. Z., and Gobler, C. J., 2011. The green macroalga, Ulva
lactuca, inhibits the growth of seven common harmful algal
bloom species via allelopathy. Harmful Algae, 10, 480–488.
Tyler, M. A., and Heinbokel, J. F., 1985. Cycles of red water and
encystment of Gymnodinium pseudopalustre in the Chesapeake
Bay: effects of hydrography and grazing. In Anderson, D. M.,
White, A. W., and Baden, D. G. (eds.), Toxic Dinoflagellates.
New York: Elsevier, pp. 213–218.
Wang, D.-Z., 2008. Neurotoxins from marine Dinoflagellates:
a brief review. Marine Drugs, 6, 349–371.
Wang, R., Xiao, H., Zhang, P., Qu, L., Cai, H., and Tang, X., 2007.
Allelopathic effects of Ulva pertusa, Corallina pilulifera, and
Sargassum thunbergii on the growth of the Dinoflagellates
Heterosigma akashiwo and Alexandrium tamarense. Journal of
Applied Phycology, 19, 109–121.
716
TOXIC BLOOMS