the daily and seasonal interaction of winds and waves to
over thousands of years due to secular sea-level changes.
Tidal ranges affect the shoreline configuration, and vice
versa. Monsoons also play an important role in shoreline
changes. Wave refractions and the resulting longshore currents are the primary agents of sediment transport and deposition on shorelines. Rivers are the major sources of
sediment supply and littoral drift of sediments along shorelines. The breaking waves and currents in the nearshore
zone are responsible for the transport of coastal sediments
resulting in shoreline change. Anthropogenic activities
such as construction of coastal structures (harbors, breakwaters, seawalls, and vented dams across the rivers), mining of sand and shells, and urbanization and
industrialization also contribute to the shoreline changes.
Sea-level rise during the late Pleistocene and Holocene
dramatically altered the physiography of the coastlines
around the world. The high rate of sea-level rise during
early to mid-Holocene time, high sediment discharge,
and wave energy regime favored the preservation of transgressive depositional sequences.
Shoreline-change analysis is very important to understand coastal processes and morphodynamics, as well as
to predict the future shoreline changes. The most effective
and economic instrumentations used for shoreline mapping and shoreline-change monitoring are satellite sensors, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and all-weather
sensors. Shoreline change studies using remote sensing
techniques are highly accurate and cost-effective.
Satellite-imaging systems have increasingly improved
image resolution including the new generation of the
high-resolution satellite imagery such as QuickBird and
IKONOS. Various methods, such as end-point rate, average of rates, linear regression, jackknife, and average of
eras rates, are used to estimate shoreline changes.
Bibliography
Ablain, M., Cazenave, A., Valladeau, G., and Guinehut, S., 2009.
A new assessment of the error budget of global mean sea level
rate estimated by satellite altimetry over 1993–2008. Ocean
Science, 5, 193–201.
Al Bakri, D., 1996. Natural hazards of shoreline bluff erosion: a case
study of Horizon View, Lake Huron. Geomorphology, 17,
323–337.
Albert, P., and Jorge, G., 1998. Coastal changes in the Ebro delta:
natural and human factors. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 4,
17–26.
Allan, J. C., Komar, P. D., and Priest, G. R., 2003. Shoreline variability on the high-energy Oregon coast and its usefulness in erosion–hazard assessments. Journal of Coastal Research, 38,
83–105.
Bird, E. C. F., 2000. Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Boak, E. H., and Turner, I. L., 2005. Shoreline definition and detection: a review. Journal of Coastal Research, 21, 688–703.
Bromhead, E. N., 1979. Factors affecting the transition between the
various types of mass movement in coastal cliffs consisting
largely of over-consolidated clay, with special reference to
southern England. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology
& Hydrogeology, 12, 291–300.
Brunsden, D., and Jones, D. K. C., 1980. Relative time scales and
formative events in coastal landslide systems. Zeitschrift fuer
Geomorphologie, 34, 1–19. N.F Suppl Band.
Bruun, P. 1962. Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal
Waterways and Harbours Division, 88(1–3), 117–130.
Bruun, P., Mehta, A. J., and Johnson, I. G., 1978. Stability of tidal
inlets. In Theory and Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Carter, R. W. G., 1986. The morphodynamics of beach-ridge formation: Magilligan, Northern Ireland. Marine Geology, 73, 191–214.
Cazenave, A., and Llovel, W., 2010. Contemporary sea level rise.
Annual Review of Marine Sciences, 2, 145–173.
Chandramohan, P., Kumar, V. S., Nayak, B. U., and Raju, N. S. N.,
1994. Surf zone dynamics along the south Karnataka coast
between Bhatkal and Ullal, west coast of India. Indian Journal
of Marine Sciences, 23, 189–194.
Church, J. A., and White, N. J., 2006. A 20th century acceleration in
global seal-level rise. Geophysical Research Letters, 33,
L01602, doi:10.1029/2005GL024826.
Clarke, A. J., and Liu, X., 1994. Interannual sea level in the northern
and eastern Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99,
1224–1235.
Crowell, M., Douglas, B. C., and Leatherman, S. P., 1997. On forecasting future U.S. shoreline positions: a test of algorithms.
Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 1245–1255.
De Vriend, H. J., 1991. Mathematical modelling and large-scale
coastal behaviour; Part 1, physical processes. Journal of
Hydraulic Research, 29, 727–740.
Deepika, B., Avinash, K., and Jayappa, K. S., 2013. Shoreline
change rate estimation and its forecast: remote sensing, geographical information system and statistics-based approach.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, doi:10.1007/s13762-013-0196-1.
Denness, B., 1971. The reservoir principle of mass movement.
Report Institute of Geological Science, 72\7, 13.
Dolan, R., Fenster, M. S., and Holme, S. J., 1991. Temporal analysis
of shoreline recession and accretion. Journal of Coastal
Research, 7, 723–744.
Dolan, R., Hayden, B., May, P., and May, S., 1980. The reliability
of shoreline change measurements from aerial photographs.
Shore and Beach, 48, 22–29.
Douglas, B. C., 2001. Sea level change in the era of the recording
tide gauge. In Douglas, B. C., Kearney, M. S., and Leatherman,
S. P. (eds.), Sea Level Rise – History and Consequences. New
York: Academic Press, pp. 37–64.
Douglas, B. C., and Crowell, M., 2000. Long-term shoreline
position prediction and error propagation. Journal of Coastal
Research, 16, 145–152.
Fenster, M. S., Dolan, R., and Elder, J. F., 1993. A new method for
predicting shoreline positions from historical data. Journal of
Coastal Research, 9, 147–171.
Firth, C. R., Smith, D. E., Hansom, J. D., and Pearson, S. G., 1995.
Holocene development on a regressive shoreline, Dornoch Firth,
Scotland. Marine Geology, 124, 203–214.
Foster, E. R., and Savage, R. J., 1989. Methods of historical
shoreline analysis. In Magoon, O. T., Converse, H., Miner, D.,
Tobin, L. T., and Clark, D. (eds.), Coastal Zone ’89. New York:
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 5, pp. 4434–4448.
Fritz, L., 1996. Commercial Earth observation satellites, international archives of photogrammetry and remote sensing. ISPRS
Commission, IV, 273–282.
Gornitz, V. 1991. Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise.
Palaeogeorg Palaeocl, 89, 379–3.
Hall, J. W., Lee, E. M., and Meadowcroft, I. C., 2000. Risk-based
benefit assessment of coastal cliff recession. ICE Journal of
Water, Maritime and Energy, 142, 127–139.
Howe, H. V., Russell, R. J., McGuirt, J. H., Craft, B. C., and
Stephenson, M. B., 1935. Reports on the geology of Cameron
600
SHORELINE CHANGES
over thousands of years due to secular sea-level changes.
Tidal ranges affect the shoreline configuration, and vice
versa. Monsoons also play an important role in shoreline
changes. Wave refractions and the resulting longshore currents are the primary agents of sediment transport and deposition on shorelines. Rivers are the major sources of
sediment supply and littoral drift of sediments along shorelines. The breaking waves and currents in the nearshore
zone are responsible for the transport of coastal sediments
resulting in shoreline change. Anthropogenic activities
such as construction of coastal structures (harbors, breakwaters, seawalls, and vented dams across the rivers), mining of sand and shells, and urbanization and
industrialization also contribute to the shoreline changes.
Sea-level rise during the late Pleistocene and Holocene
dramatically altered the physiography of the coastlines
around the world. The high rate of sea-level rise during
early to mid-Holocene time, high sediment discharge,
and wave energy regime favored the preservation of transgressive depositional sequences.
Shoreline-change analysis is very important to understand coastal processes and morphodynamics, as well as
to predict the future shoreline changes. The most effective
and economic instrumentations used for shoreline mapping and shoreline-change monitoring are satellite sensors, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and all-weather
sensors. Shoreline change studies using remote sensing
techniques are highly accurate and cost-effective.
Satellite-imaging systems have increasingly improved
image resolution including the new generation of the
high-resolution satellite imagery such as QuickBird and
IKONOS. Various methods, such as end-point rate, average of rates, linear regression, jackknife, and average of
eras rates, are used to estimate shoreline changes.
Bibliography
Ablain, M., Cazenave, A., Valladeau, G., and Guinehut, S., 2009.
A new assessment of the error budget of global mean sea level
rate estimated by satellite altimetry over 1993–2008. Ocean
Science, 5, 193–201.
Al Bakri, D., 1996. Natural hazards of shoreline bluff erosion: a case
study of Horizon View, Lake Huron. Geomorphology, 17,
323–337.
Albert, P., and Jorge, G., 1998. Coastal changes in the Ebro delta:
natural and human factors. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 4,
17–26.
Allan, J. C., Komar, P. D., and Priest, G. R., 2003. Shoreline variability on the high-energy Oregon coast and its usefulness in erosion–hazard assessments. Journal of Coastal Research, 38,
83–105.
Bird, E. C. F., 2000. Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Boak, E. H., and Turner, I. L., 2005. Shoreline definition and detection: a review. Journal of Coastal Research, 21, 688–703.
Bromhead, E. N., 1979. Factors affecting the transition between the
various types of mass movement in coastal cliffs consisting
largely of over-consolidated clay, with special reference to
southern England. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology
& Hydrogeology, 12, 291–300.
Brunsden, D., and Jones, D. K. C., 1980. Relative time scales and
formative events in coastal landslide systems. Zeitschrift fuer
Geomorphologie, 34, 1–19. N.F Suppl Band.
Bruun, P. 1962. Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal
Waterways and Harbours Division, 88(1–3), 117–130.
Bruun, P., Mehta, A. J., and Johnson, I. G., 1978. Stability of tidal
inlets. In Theory and Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Carter, R. W. G., 1986. The morphodynamics of beach-ridge formation: Magilligan, Northern Ireland. Marine Geology, 73, 191–214.
Cazenave, A., and Llovel, W., 2010. Contemporary sea level rise.
Annual Review of Marine Sciences, 2, 145–173.
Chandramohan, P., Kumar, V. S., Nayak, B. U., and Raju, N. S. N.,
1994. Surf zone dynamics along the south Karnataka coast
between Bhatkal and Ullal, west coast of India. Indian Journal
of Marine Sciences, 23, 189–194.
Church, J. A., and White, N. J., 2006. A 20th century acceleration in
global seal-level rise. Geophysical Research Letters, 33,
L01602, doi:10.1029/2005GL024826.
Clarke, A. J., and Liu, X., 1994. Interannual sea level in the northern
and eastern Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99,
1224–1235.
Crowell, M., Douglas, B. C., and Leatherman, S. P., 1997. On forecasting future U.S. shoreline positions: a test of algorithms.
Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 1245–1255.
De Vriend, H. J., 1991. Mathematical modelling and large-scale
coastal behaviour; Part 1, physical processes. Journal of
Hydraulic Research, 29, 727–740.
Deepika, B., Avinash, K., and Jayappa, K. S., 2013. Shoreline
change rate estimation and its forecast: remote sensing, geographical information system and statistics-based approach.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, doi:10.1007/s13762-013-0196-1.
Denness, B., 1971. The reservoir principle of mass movement.
Report Institute of Geological Science, 72\7, 13.
Dolan, R., Fenster, M. S., and Holme, S. J., 1991. Temporal analysis
of shoreline recession and accretion. Journal of Coastal
Research, 7, 723–744.
Dolan, R., Hayden, B., May, P., and May, S., 1980. The reliability
of shoreline change measurements from aerial photographs.
Shore and Beach, 48, 22–29.
Douglas, B. C., 2001. Sea level change in the era of the recording
tide gauge. In Douglas, B. C., Kearney, M. S., and Leatherman,
S. P. (eds.), Sea Level Rise – History and Consequences. New
York: Academic Press, pp. 37–64.
Douglas, B. C., and Crowell, M., 2000. Long-term shoreline
position prediction and error propagation. Journal of Coastal
Research, 16, 145–152.
Fenster, M. S., Dolan, R., and Elder, J. F., 1993. A new method for
predicting shoreline positions from historical data. Journal of
Coastal Research, 9, 147–171.
Firth, C. R., Smith, D. E., Hansom, J. D., and Pearson, S. G., 1995.
Holocene development on a regressive shoreline, Dornoch Firth,
Scotland. Marine Geology, 124, 203–214.
Foster, E. R., and Savage, R. J., 1989. Methods of historical
shoreline analysis. In Magoon, O. T., Converse, H., Miner, D.,
Tobin, L. T., and Clark, D. (eds.), Coastal Zone ’89. New York:
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 5, pp. 4434–4448.
Fritz, L., 1996. Commercial Earth observation satellites, international archives of photogrammetry and remote sensing. ISPRS
Commission, IV, 273–282.
Gornitz, V. 1991. Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise.
Palaeogeorg Palaeocl, 89, 379–3.
Hall, J. W., Lee, E. M., and Meadowcroft, I. C., 2000. Risk-based
benefit assessment of coastal cliff recession. ICE Journal of
Water, Maritime and Energy, 142, 127–139.
Howe, H. V., Russell, R. J., McGuirt, J. H., Craft, B. C., and
Stephenson, M. B., 1935. Reports on the geology of Cameron
600
SHORELINE CHANGES