Callinectes sapidus acclimated to different salinities: in vivo and
in vitro studies. Aquatic Toxicology, 101, 88–99.
McDonagh, B., Tyther, R., and Sheehan, D., 2005. Carbonylation
and glutathionylation of proteins in the blue mussel Mytilus
edulis detected by proteomic analysis and Western blotting:
actin as a target for oxidative stress. Aquatic Toxicology, 73,
315–326.
Monserrat, J. M., Martinez, P. E., Geracitano, L. A., Amado, L. L.,
Martins, C. M. G., Pinho, G. L. L., Chavez, I. S., Ferreira-Cravo,
M., Ventura-Lima, J., and Bianchini, A., 2007. Pollution biomarkers in estuarine animals: critical review and new perspectives. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C, 146,
221–234.
Morgan, J. D., and Iwama, G. K., 1999. Energy cost of NaCl transport in isolated gills of cutthroat trout. American Journal of
Physiology, 277, 631–639.
Naylor, E., 1976. Rhythmic behaviour and reproduction in marine
animals. In Newell, R. C. (ed.), Adaptation to Environment:
Essays on the Physiology of Marine Animals. London:
Butterworths.
Naylor, E., 2001. Marine animal behaviour in relation to lunar
phase. Earth, Moon and Planets, 85–86, 291–302.
Newell, R. C., 1979. Biology of Intertidal Animals. Faversham,
Kent: Marine Ecological Surveys.
Pechenic, J. A., and Kerr, R. B., 2000. Effects of reduced salinity on
survival, growth, reproductive success, and energetic of the
euryhaline polychaete Capitella sp.1. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 254, 19–35.
Pechenic, J. A., Marsden, I. D., and Pechenic, O., 2003. Effects of
temperature, salinity, and air exposure on development of the
estuarine pulmonate Amphibola crenata. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 292, 159–176.
Portner, H.-O., Bock, C., Knust, G. L., Lucassen, F. C. M., and Sartorius, F. J., 2008. Cod and climate in a latitudinal cline: physiological analyses of climate effects in marine fishes. Climate
Research, 37, 253–270.
Rainbow, P. S., 1995. Biomonitoring of heavy metal availability in
the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31,
183–192.
Rainbow, P. S., 2007. Trace metal bioaccumulation: models, metabolic availability and toxicity. Environment International, 33,
576–582.
Rodrigues, A. P., Oliveira, P. C., Guilhermino, L., and Guimaraes,
L., 2012. Effects of salinity stress on neurotransmission, energy
metabolism, and anti-oxidant biomarkers of Carcinus maenas
from two estuaries of the NW Iberian Peninsula. Marine Biology,
159, 2061–2074.
Scott, G. R., and Sloman, K. A., 2004. The effects of environmental
pollutants on complex fish behaviour: integrating behavioural
and physiological indicators of toxicity. Aquatic Toxicology,
68, 369–392.
Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., and Yancey, P. H., 2005. Animal Physiology. From Genes to Organisms. Stamford, CT: Thomson
Learning.
Shumway, S. E., and Marsden, I. D., 1981. The combined effects of
temperature, salinity and declining oxygen tension on oxygen
consumption in the marine pulmonate Amphibola crenata
(Gmelin, 1791). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology, 61, 133–146.
Skaggs, H. S., and Henry, R. P., 2002. Inhibition of carbonic
anhydrase in the gills of two euryhaline crabs, Callinectes
sapidus and Carcinus maenas by heavy metals. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. C, 133, 605–612.
Smith, T. I. J., Denson, M. R., Heyward, L. D., Jenkins, W. E., and
Carter, L. M., 1999. Salinity effects on early life stages of
southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma. Journal of World
Aquaculture Society, 30, 236–244.
Spanopoulos-hernandez, M., Martinez-Palacios, C. A., VanegasPeres, R. C., Rosas, C., and Ross, L. G., 2005. The combined
effects of salinity and temperature on the oxygen uptake of
juvenile shrimps Litopenaeus stylirostris (Stimpson, 1874).
Aquaculture, 244, 341–348.
Specker, J. L., Schreiber, A. M., McArdle, M. E., Poholec, A.,
Henderson, J., and Bengston, D. A., 1999. Metamorphosis
in summer flounder: acclimation to low and high salinities.
Aquaculture, 176, 145–154.
Wells, M. G., 1980. Invertebrate Respiration. London: Edward
Arnold.
Willmer, P., Stone, G., and Johnston, I., 2005. Environmental Physiology of Animals, 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Zhang, P., Zhang, J. L., and Huang, G., 2006. The effects of body
weight, salinity, pH, light intensity and feeding condition on
lethal DO levels of whiteleg shrimp, Litopeneus vannamei.
Aquaculture, 256, 579–587.
Cross-references
Aerobic Environments
Anaerobic Environments
Bioindicators
Biomonitors
Macrofauna
Tidal Flat Salinity Gradient
Water Quality
PHYTOPLANKTON
Harold G. Marshall
Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, VA, USA
Definition
The plant component of plankton populations in the water
columns of estuaries, oceans, and freshwater habitats.
Introduction
Phytoplankton (Greek: phyto- plant; planktos- drifting)
populations include a diverse representation of
both microscopic eukaryote algae and prokaryote
cyanobacteria. They are major oxygen producers and also
represent the initial food source for numerous food webs
in freshwater, estuarine, and marine waters. These taxa
have a variety of shapes and sizes that include unicellular,
colonial, and filamentous species (Tomas, 1997). Many of
the unicellular taxa also possess spines or other protuberances that provide increased surface to volume ratios to
the cells that aid in their buoyancy. Other species are
motile, containing flagella allowing them movement in
the water column, and are referred to as phytoflagellates.
The colonial forms may include those that are enclosed
in a mucilaginous by-product which is common among
many of the cyanobacteria species and which allows
their cells to remain clustered together. Filamentous
phytoplankton may consist of straight, curved, or coiled
filaments of various lengths and sizes. The phytoplankton
PHYTOPLANKTON
491
in vitro studies. Aquatic Toxicology, 101, 88–99.
McDonagh, B., Tyther, R., and Sheehan, D., 2005. Carbonylation
and glutathionylation of proteins in the blue mussel Mytilus
edulis detected by proteomic analysis and Western blotting:
actin as a target for oxidative stress. Aquatic Toxicology, 73,
315–326.
Monserrat, J. M., Martinez, P. E., Geracitano, L. A., Amado, L. L.,
Martins, C. M. G., Pinho, G. L. L., Chavez, I. S., Ferreira-Cravo,
M., Ventura-Lima, J., and Bianchini, A., 2007. Pollution biomarkers in estuarine animals: critical review and new perspectives. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C, 146,
221–234.
Morgan, J. D., and Iwama, G. K., 1999. Energy cost of NaCl transport in isolated gills of cutthroat trout. American Journal of
Physiology, 277, 631–639.
Naylor, E., 1976. Rhythmic behaviour and reproduction in marine
animals. In Newell, R. C. (ed.), Adaptation to Environment:
Essays on the Physiology of Marine Animals. London:
Butterworths.
Naylor, E., 2001. Marine animal behaviour in relation to lunar
phase. Earth, Moon and Planets, 85–86, 291–302.
Newell, R. C., 1979. Biology of Intertidal Animals. Faversham,
Kent: Marine Ecological Surveys.
Pechenic, J. A., and Kerr, R. B., 2000. Effects of reduced salinity on
survival, growth, reproductive success, and energetic of the
euryhaline polychaete Capitella sp.1. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 254, 19–35.
Pechenic, J. A., Marsden, I. D., and Pechenic, O., 2003. Effects of
temperature, salinity, and air exposure on development of the
estuarine pulmonate Amphibola crenata. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 292, 159–176.
Portner, H.-O., Bock, C., Knust, G. L., Lucassen, F. C. M., and Sartorius, F. J., 2008. Cod and climate in a latitudinal cline: physiological analyses of climate effects in marine fishes. Climate
Research, 37, 253–270.
Rainbow, P. S., 1995. Biomonitoring of heavy metal availability in
the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31,
183–192.
Rainbow, P. S., 2007. Trace metal bioaccumulation: models, metabolic availability and toxicity. Environment International, 33,
576–582.
Rodrigues, A. P., Oliveira, P. C., Guilhermino, L., and Guimaraes,
L., 2012. Effects of salinity stress on neurotransmission, energy
metabolism, and anti-oxidant biomarkers of Carcinus maenas
from two estuaries of the NW Iberian Peninsula. Marine Biology,
159, 2061–2074.
Scott, G. R., and Sloman, K. A., 2004. The effects of environmental
pollutants on complex fish behaviour: integrating behavioural
and physiological indicators of toxicity. Aquatic Toxicology,
68, 369–392.
Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., and Yancey, P. H., 2005. Animal Physiology. From Genes to Organisms. Stamford, CT: Thomson
Learning.
Shumway, S. E., and Marsden, I. D., 1981. The combined effects of
temperature, salinity and declining oxygen tension on oxygen
consumption in the marine pulmonate Amphibola crenata
(Gmelin, 1791). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology, 61, 133–146.
Skaggs, H. S., and Henry, R. P., 2002. Inhibition of carbonic
anhydrase in the gills of two euryhaline crabs, Callinectes
sapidus and Carcinus maenas by heavy metals. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. C, 133, 605–612.
Smith, T. I. J., Denson, M. R., Heyward, L. D., Jenkins, W. E., and
Carter, L. M., 1999. Salinity effects on early life stages of
southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma. Journal of World
Aquaculture Society, 30, 236–244.
Spanopoulos-hernandez, M., Martinez-Palacios, C. A., VanegasPeres, R. C., Rosas, C., and Ross, L. G., 2005. The combined
effects of salinity and temperature on the oxygen uptake of
juvenile shrimps Litopenaeus stylirostris (Stimpson, 1874).
Aquaculture, 244, 341–348.
Specker, J. L., Schreiber, A. M., McArdle, M. E., Poholec, A.,
Henderson, J., and Bengston, D. A., 1999. Metamorphosis
in summer flounder: acclimation to low and high salinities.
Aquaculture, 176, 145–154.
Wells, M. G., 1980. Invertebrate Respiration. London: Edward
Arnold.
Willmer, P., Stone, G., and Johnston, I., 2005. Environmental Physiology of Animals, 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Zhang, P., Zhang, J. L., and Huang, G., 2006. The effects of body
weight, salinity, pH, light intensity and feeding condition on
lethal DO levels of whiteleg shrimp, Litopeneus vannamei.
Aquaculture, 256, 579–587.
Cross-references
Aerobic Environments
Anaerobic Environments
Bioindicators
Biomonitors
Macrofauna
Tidal Flat Salinity Gradient
Water Quality
PHYTOPLANKTON
Harold G. Marshall
Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, VA, USA
Definition
The plant component of plankton populations in the water
columns of estuaries, oceans, and freshwater habitats.
Introduction
Phytoplankton (Greek: phyto- plant; planktos- drifting)
populations include a diverse representation of
both microscopic eukaryote algae and prokaryote
cyanobacteria. They are major oxygen producers and also
represent the initial food source for numerous food webs
in freshwater, estuarine, and marine waters. These taxa
have a variety of shapes and sizes that include unicellular,
colonial, and filamentous species (Tomas, 1997). Many of
the unicellular taxa also possess spines or other protuberances that provide increased surface to volume ratios to
the cells that aid in their buoyancy. Other species are
motile, containing flagella allowing them movement in
the water column, and are referred to as phytoflagellates.
The colonial forms may include those that are enclosed
in a mucilaginous by-product which is common among
many of the cyanobacteria species and which allows
their cells to remain clustered together. Filamentous
phytoplankton may consist of straight, curved, or coiled
filaments of various lengths and sizes. The phytoplankton
PHYTOPLANKTON
491