natural and anthropogenic factors. Compared with coastal
ocean environments, relatively few species occur in estuaries, and they have specialized morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. With global climate
change, additional pressure occurs from increased sea
level, elevated temperatures, and ocean acidification.
Because of their shallowness, estuaries are especially susceptible to climate change, and anoxic zones that can
develop are among the most threatened environments
(Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008). Some estuarine organisms
are able to adapt to changing temperatures by acclimation
and the production of heat-shock proteins which provide
cellular defense against oxidative stress (Madeira et al.,
2012b). Others adapt to changing salinity regimes, and
the physiological and behavioral adaptations described
above would allow species to survive in hypoxic and
hypercapnic environments. Thus, physiological mechanisms which have evolved over time, especially those
which allow species to manage their acid–base balance
when faced with changing conditions, enable estuarine
organisms to survive. Fish and polychaete worms have
effective mechanisms to cope with global change, but further research is needed to identify which species are sensitive to changes and those which are able to invade and
exploit the estuarine environment.
Bibliography
Amado, L. L., da Rosa, C. E., Leite, A. M., Moraes, L., Pitez, W. V.,
Pinho, G. L. L., Martins, C. M. G., Robaldo, R. B.,
Nery, L. E. M., Monserrat, J. M., Bianchini, A., Marinez, P. E.,
and Geracitano, L. A., 2006. Biomarkers in croakers
Micropogonias furnieri (teleostei: Sciaenidae) from polluted
and non-polluted areas from the Patos Lagoon estuary (Southern
Brazil): Evidences of genotoxic and immunological effects.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 199–206.
Bianchini, A., Lauer, M. M., Nery, L. E. M., Colares, E. P.,
Monserrat, J. M., and dos Santos Filho, E. A., 2008. Biochemical
and physiological adaptations in the estuarine crab Neohelice
granulata during salinity acclimation. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 151, 423–436.
Boeuf, G., and Payan, P., 2001. How should salinity influence fish
growth? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C,
130, 411–423.
Carmichael, R. H., Shriver, A. C., and Valiela, I., 2004. Changes in
shell and soft tissue growth and survival of quahogs, mercenaria
mercenaria, and softshell clams Mya arenaria, in response to
eutrophic–driven changes in food supply and habitat. Journal
of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 313, 75–104.
Charmantier, G., Haond, G., Lignot, J. H., and Charmantier-Daures,
M., 2001. Ecophysiological adaptation to salinity throughout
a life cycle: a review in homarid lobsters. Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 967–977.
Crain, C. M., Kroeker, K., and Halpern, B. S., 2008. Interactive
and cumulative effects of multiple human stressors in marine
systems. Ecology Letters, 11, 1304–1315.
Darnell, M. Z., Rittschof, D., and Forward, R. B., 2010. Endogenous swimming rhythms underlying the spawning migration of
the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus: ontogeny and variation with
ambient tidal regime. Marine Biology, 157, 2415–2425.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Farcy, E., Burgeot, T., Haberkorn, H., Auffret, M., Lagadic, L.,
Allenou, J.-P., Budzinnski, H., Mazella, N., Pete, R., Heydorff,
M., Menard, D., Mondeguer, F., and Caquet, T., 2013. An integrated environmental approach to investigate biomarker fluctuations in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. in the Vilaine Estuary,
France. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20,
630–650.
Freire, C. A., Welker, A., Storey, J. M., Storey, K. B., and HermesLima, M., 2011a. Oxidative stress in estuarine and intertidal species. In Abele, D., Zenteno- Savin, T., and Vazquez-Medina, J. P.
(eds.), Oxidative Stress in Aquatic Ecosystems. Hoboken: WileyBlackwell.
Freire, C. A., Togni, V. G., and Hermes-Lima, M., 2011b.
Responses of free radical metabolism to air exposure or salinity
stress in crabs (Callinectes dannae and C. ornatus) with different
estuarine distributions. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 160, 291–300.
Gericitano, L. A., Monserrat, J. M., and Bianchini, A., 2004. Oxidative stress in Laeonereis acuta (Polychaeta, Nereidae): environmental and seasonal effects. Marine Environmental Research,
58, 625–630.
Haefner, P. A., 1970. The effect of low dissolved oxygen concentrations on the temperature-salinity tolerance of sand shrimp,
Crangon septemspinosa. Say. Physiological Zoology, 43,
30–37.
Heilmayer, O., Digialleonardo, J., Qian, L., and Roesijadi, G., 2008.
Stress tolerance of a subtropical Crassostrea virginica population to the combined effects of temperature and salinity. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 79, 179–185.
Henry, R. P., 2005. Critical salinity, sensitivity, and commitment of
salinity–mediated carbonic anhydrase induction in the gills of
two euryhaline species of decapods crustaceans. Journal of
Experimental Zoology, 303A, 45–56.
Henry, R. P, Lucu, C., Onken, H., and Weihrauch, D., 2012. Multiple functions of the crustacean gill: osmotic/ionic regulation,
acid base balance, ammonia excretion, and bioccumulation of
toxic metals. Frontiers in Physiology, 3, Art. No. 431.
Jillette, N., Cammack, L., Lowensein, M., and Henry, R. P., 2011.
Down-regulation of activity and expression of three transport
related proteins in the gills of the euryhaline green crab,
Carcinus maenas, in response to high salinity acclimation.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 158, 189–193.
Lockwood, A. M. P., 1976. Physiological adaptation to life in
estuaries. In Newell, R. C. (ed.), Adaptation to Environment.
London: Butterworth.
Luoma, S. N., and Rainbow, P. S., 2008. Metal Contamination in
Aquatic Environments: Science and Lateral Management.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Madeira, D., Narciso, L., Cabral, H. N., and Vinagre, C., 2012a.
Thermal tolerance and potential impacts of climate change on
coastal and estuarine organisms. Journal of Sea Research, 70,
32–41.
Madeira, D., Narciso, L., Cabral, H. N., Vinagre, C., and Diniz,
M. S., 2012b. HSP70 production pattern in coastal and estuarine
organisms facing increasing temperatures. Journal of Sea
Research, 73, 137–147.
Marsden, I. D., 2004. Effects of reduced salinity and seston availability on growth of the new Zealand little-neck clam
Austrovenus stutchburyi. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 266,
157–171.
Marsden, I. D., and Rainbow, P. S., 2004. Does the accumulation of
trace metals in crustaceans affect their ecology- the amphipod
example. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,
300, 373–408.
Martins, C. D. M., Barcarolli, I. F., de Mendez, E. J., Giacomin,
M. M., Wood, C. M., and Bianchini, A., 2011. Acute toxicity
accumulation and tissue distribution of copper in the blue crab
490
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
ocean environments, relatively few species occur in estuaries, and they have specialized morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. With global climate
change, additional pressure occurs from increased sea
level, elevated temperatures, and ocean acidification.
Because of their shallowness, estuaries are especially susceptible to climate change, and anoxic zones that can
develop are among the most threatened environments
(Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008). Some estuarine organisms
are able to adapt to changing temperatures by acclimation
and the production of heat-shock proteins which provide
cellular defense against oxidative stress (Madeira et al.,
2012b). Others adapt to changing salinity regimes, and
the physiological and behavioral adaptations described
above would allow species to survive in hypoxic and
hypercapnic environments. Thus, physiological mechanisms which have evolved over time, especially those
which allow species to manage their acid–base balance
when faced with changing conditions, enable estuarine
organisms to survive. Fish and polychaete worms have
effective mechanisms to cope with global change, but further research is needed to identify which species are sensitive to changes and those which are able to invade and
exploit the estuarine environment.
Bibliography
Amado, L. L., da Rosa, C. E., Leite, A. M., Moraes, L., Pitez, W. V.,
Pinho, G. L. L., Martins, C. M. G., Robaldo, R. B.,
Nery, L. E. M., Monserrat, J. M., Bianchini, A., Marinez, P. E.,
and Geracitano, L. A., 2006. Biomarkers in croakers
Micropogonias furnieri (teleostei: Sciaenidae) from polluted
and non-polluted areas from the Patos Lagoon estuary (Southern
Brazil): Evidences of genotoxic and immunological effects.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 199–206.
Bianchini, A., Lauer, M. M., Nery, L. E. M., Colares, E. P.,
Monserrat, J. M., and dos Santos Filho, E. A., 2008. Biochemical
and physiological adaptations in the estuarine crab Neohelice
granulata during salinity acclimation. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 151, 423–436.
Boeuf, G., and Payan, P., 2001. How should salinity influence fish
growth? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C,
130, 411–423.
Carmichael, R. H., Shriver, A. C., and Valiela, I., 2004. Changes in
shell and soft tissue growth and survival of quahogs, mercenaria
mercenaria, and softshell clams Mya arenaria, in response to
eutrophic–driven changes in food supply and habitat. Journal
of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 313, 75–104.
Charmantier, G., Haond, G., Lignot, J. H., and Charmantier-Daures,
M., 2001. Ecophysiological adaptation to salinity throughout
a life cycle: a review in homarid lobsters. Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 967–977.
Crain, C. M., Kroeker, K., and Halpern, B. S., 2008. Interactive
and cumulative effects of multiple human stressors in marine
systems. Ecology Letters, 11, 1304–1315.
Darnell, M. Z., Rittschof, D., and Forward, R. B., 2010. Endogenous swimming rhythms underlying the spawning migration of
the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus: ontogeny and variation with
ambient tidal regime. Marine Biology, 157, 2415–2425.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Farcy, E., Burgeot, T., Haberkorn, H., Auffret, M., Lagadic, L.,
Allenou, J.-P., Budzinnski, H., Mazella, N., Pete, R., Heydorff,
M., Menard, D., Mondeguer, F., and Caquet, T., 2013. An integrated environmental approach to investigate biomarker fluctuations in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. in the Vilaine Estuary,
France. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20,
630–650.
Freire, C. A., Welker, A., Storey, J. M., Storey, K. B., and HermesLima, M., 2011a. Oxidative stress in estuarine and intertidal species. In Abele, D., Zenteno- Savin, T., and Vazquez-Medina, J. P.
(eds.), Oxidative Stress in Aquatic Ecosystems. Hoboken: WileyBlackwell.
Freire, C. A., Togni, V. G., and Hermes-Lima, M., 2011b.
Responses of free radical metabolism to air exposure or salinity
stress in crabs (Callinectes dannae and C. ornatus) with different
estuarine distributions. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 160, 291–300.
Gericitano, L. A., Monserrat, J. M., and Bianchini, A., 2004. Oxidative stress in Laeonereis acuta (Polychaeta, Nereidae): environmental and seasonal effects. Marine Environmental Research,
58, 625–630.
Haefner, P. A., 1970. The effect of low dissolved oxygen concentrations on the temperature-salinity tolerance of sand shrimp,
Crangon septemspinosa. Say. Physiological Zoology, 43,
30–37.
Heilmayer, O., Digialleonardo, J., Qian, L., and Roesijadi, G., 2008.
Stress tolerance of a subtropical Crassostrea virginica population to the combined effects of temperature and salinity. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 79, 179–185.
Henry, R. P., 2005. Critical salinity, sensitivity, and commitment of
salinity–mediated carbonic anhydrase induction in the gills of
two euryhaline species of decapods crustaceans. Journal of
Experimental Zoology, 303A, 45–56.
Henry, R. P, Lucu, C., Onken, H., and Weihrauch, D., 2012. Multiple functions of the crustacean gill: osmotic/ionic regulation,
acid base balance, ammonia excretion, and bioccumulation of
toxic metals. Frontiers in Physiology, 3, Art. No. 431.
Jillette, N., Cammack, L., Lowensein, M., and Henry, R. P., 2011.
Down-regulation of activity and expression of three transport
related proteins in the gills of the euryhaline green crab,
Carcinus maenas, in response to high salinity acclimation.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A, 158, 189–193.
Lockwood, A. M. P., 1976. Physiological adaptation to life in
estuaries. In Newell, R. C. (ed.), Adaptation to Environment.
London: Butterworth.
Luoma, S. N., and Rainbow, P. S., 2008. Metal Contamination in
Aquatic Environments: Science and Lateral Management.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Madeira, D., Narciso, L., Cabral, H. N., and Vinagre, C., 2012a.
Thermal tolerance and potential impacts of climate change on
coastal and estuarine organisms. Journal of Sea Research, 70,
32–41.
Madeira, D., Narciso, L., Cabral, H. N., Vinagre, C., and Diniz,
M. S., 2012b. HSP70 production pattern in coastal and estuarine
organisms facing increasing temperatures. Journal of Sea
Research, 73, 137–147.
Marsden, I. D., 2004. Effects of reduced salinity and seston availability on growth of the new Zealand little-neck clam
Austrovenus stutchburyi. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 266,
157–171.
Marsden, I. D., and Rainbow, P. S., 2004. Does the accumulation of
trace metals in crustaceans affect their ecology- the amphipod
example. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,
300, 373–408.
Martins, C. D. M., Barcarolli, I. F., de Mendez, E. J., Giacomin,
M. M., Wood, C. M., and Bianchini, A., 2011. Acute toxicity
accumulation and tissue distribution of copper in the blue crab
490
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS