Jeong, J., Jung, J., Cooper, W. J., and Song, W., 2010. Degradation
mechanisms and kinetic studies for the treatment of X-ray contrast media compounds by advanced oxidation/reduction processes. Water Research, 44, 4391–4398.
Khetan, S. K., and Collins, T. J., 2007. Human pharmaceuticals in
the aquatic environment: a challenge to green chemistry. Chemical Reviews, 107, 2319–2364.
Kümmerer, K., 2001. Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs,
diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in
relation to other sources–a review. Chemosphere, 45, 957–969.
Liang, X., Chen, B., Nie, X., Shi, Z., Huang, X., and Li, X., 2013.
The distribution and partitioning of common antibiotics in water
and sediment of the Pearl River Estuary, South China.
Chemosphere, 92, 1410–1416.
Lipp, P., Groß, H., and Tiehm, A., 2012. Improved elimination of
organic micropollutants by a process combination of membrane
bioreactor (MBR ) and powdered activated carbon (PAC). Desalination and Water Treatment, 42, 65–72.
Lisboa, N. S., Fahning, C. S., Cotrim, G., dos Anjos, J. P., de
Andrade, J. B., Hatje, V., and da Rocha, G. O., 2013. A simple
and sensitive UFLC-fluorescence method for endocrine disrupters determination in marine waters. Talanta, 117, 168–175.
Liu, S., Ying, G. G., Zhou, L. J., Zhang, R. Q., Chen, Z. F., and
Lai, H. J., 2012. Steroids in a typical swine farm and their release
into the environment. Water Research, 46, 3754–3768.
Liu, S., Chen, H., Xu, X. R., Liu, S. S., Sun, K. F., Zhao, J. L., and
Ying, G.G., 2015. Steroids in marine aquaculture farms surrounding Hailing Island, South China: Occurrence,
bioconcentration, and human dietary exposure. Science of the
Total Environment, 502, 400–407.
Margot, J., Kienle, C., Magnet, A., Weil, M., Rossi, L., Felippe, L.,
Alencastro, D., Abegglen, C., Thonney, D., Chèvre, N., Schärer,
M., and Barry, D. A., 2013. Treatment of micropollutants in
municipal wastewater: ozone or powdered activated carbon? Science of the Total Environment, 462, 480–498.
Metcalfe, C. D., 2013. Pharmaceutical contaminants of emerging
concern in the environment. Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry, 32, 1683–1684.
Nikolaou, A., Meric, S., and Fatta, D., 2007. Occurrence patterns of
pharmaceuticals in water and wastewater environments. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 387, 1225–1234.
Stamatis, N. K., and Konstantinou, I. K., 2013. Occurrence and
removal of emerging pharmaceutical, personal care compounds
and caffeine tracer in municipal sewage treatment plant in
Western Greece. Journal of Environmental Science and Health.
Part. B, 48, 800–813.
Steele, W. B., Garcia, S. N., Huggett, D. B., Venables, B. J., Barnes
Iii, S. E., and La Point, T.W., 2013. Tissue-specific
bioconcentration of the synthetic steroid hormone medroxyprogesterone acetate in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 36, 1120–1126.
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-toxicology-andpharmacology/.
Sumpter, J. P., 2009. Protecting aquatic organisms from chemicals:
the harsh realities. Philosophical Transactions Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, 367, 3877–3894.
Valley, L. J., Zemann, M., Wolf, L., Pöschko, A., Schmidt, N.,
Sawarieh, A., Seder, N., Tiehm, A., Hötzl, H., and Goldscheider,
N., 2014. Sources and processes affecting the spatio-temporal
distribution of pharmaceuticals and X-ray contrast media in the
water resources of the. Science of the Total Environment, 489,
100–114.
Cross-references
Ecological Monitoring
Nonpoint Source Pollution
PHI SCALE
Joseph F. Donoghue
School of Geology, Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, OK, USA
Synonyms
Phi grade scale
Definition
The phi scale is a sediment particle size scale, defined as
a logarithmic transformation of the geometric UddenWentworth grain size scale (AGI, 2013). The phi diameter
is calculated as the negative logarithm to the base 2 of the
particle diameter (in millimeters).
Discussion
The phi scale was introduced by Krumbein (1934, 1938)
as a convenient means of visualizing and statistically analyzing sediment grain size distributions over a wide range
of particle sizes. The earlier Udden-Wentworth scale is a
millimeter-based scale, with an unchanging ratio between
class limits. The phi scale allows more emphasis for the
finer grain sizes. Phi size values for the sediment class
limits range from À5 phi (for a diameter of 32 mm, or very
coarse pebble size) down to +10 phi (for a diameter of
1/1,024 mm, or clay size). The scale was developed
specifically as a statistical device to permit the direct
application of conventional statistical practices to
sedimentary data.
The phi scale has distinct advantages over geometric
size scales. Tanner (1969) summarized some of the advantages as follows: geometric basis; equal spacing of size
class divisions, with integers representing the limits of
the Wentworth size classes; simple nomenclature; potential for fine subdivisions; inclusion of a wide range of
grain sizes; wide acceptance; a close match of boundaries
between the three important “super classes” (gravel, sand,
silt + clay) with the widely recognized deficiencies at
about À1 phi (2 mm) and +4 phi (1/16 mm); ease of plotting on ordinary probability axes; adaptability of phi units
to a variety of sophisticated statistical procedures; ease of
interpretation of non-Gaussian data; and ready availability
of sieve screens in standard phi sizes.
Due to its nonlinear and dimensionless nature, the phi
scale presents some challenges in reporting, especially
outside the field of sedimentology. As a consequence,
results are often reported in both phi units and metric units.
Care must be taken in such cases to stipulate how the data
were transformed.
Bibliography
AGI, 2013. Glossary of Geology. American Geosciences Institute.
http://www.agiweb.org/pubs/glossary/#online.
Krumbein, W. C., 1934. Size frequency distributions of sediments.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 4, 65–77.
PHI SCALE
483
mechanisms and kinetic studies for the treatment of X-ray contrast media compounds by advanced oxidation/reduction processes. Water Research, 44, 4391–4398.
Khetan, S. K., and Collins, T. J., 2007. Human pharmaceuticals in
the aquatic environment: a challenge to green chemistry. Chemical Reviews, 107, 2319–2364.
Kümmerer, K., 2001. Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs,
diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in
relation to other sources–a review. Chemosphere, 45, 957–969.
Liang, X., Chen, B., Nie, X., Shi, Z., Huang, X., and Li, X., 2013.
The distribution and partitioning of common antibiotics in water
and sediment of the Pearl River Estuary, South China.
Chemosphere, 92, 1410–1416.
Lipp, P., Groß, H., and Tiehm, A., 2012. Improved elimination of
organic micropollutants by a process combination of membrane
bioreactor (MBR ) and powdered activated carbon (PAC). Desalination and Water Treatment, 42, 65–72.
Lisboa, N. S., Fahning, C. S., Cotrim, G., dos Anjos, J. P., de
Andrade, J. B., Hatje, V., and da Rocha, G. O., 2013. A simple
and sensitive UFLC-fluorescence method for endocrine disrupters determination in marine waters. Talanta, 117, 168–175.
Liu, S., Ying, G. G., Zhou, L. J., Zhang, R. Q., Chen, Z. F., and
Lai, H. J., 2012. Steroids in a typical swine farm and their release
into the environment. Water Research, 46, 3754–3768.
Liu, S., Chen, H., Xu, X. R., Liu, S. S., Sun, K. F., Zhao, J. L., and
Ying, G.G., 2015. Steroids in marine aquaculture farms surrounding Hailing Island, South China: Occurrence,
bioconcentration, and human dietary exposure. Science of the
Total Environment, 502, 400–407.
Margot, J., Kienle, C., Magnet, A., Weil, M., Rossi, L., Felippe, L.,
Alencastro, D., Abegglen, C., Thonney, D., Chèvre, N., Schärer,
M., and Barry, D. A., 2013. Treatment of micropollutants in
municipal wastewater: ozone or powdered activated carbon? Science of the Total Environment, 462, 480–498.
Metcalfe, C. D., 2013. Pharmaceutical contaminants of emerging
concern in the environment. Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry, 32, 1683–1684.
Nikolaou, A., Meric, S., and Fatta, D., 2007. Occurrence patterns of
pharmaceuticals in water and wastewater environments. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 387, 1225–1234.
Stamatis, N. K., and Konstantinou, I. K., 2013. Occurrence and
removal of emerging pharmaceutical, personal care compounds
and caffeine tracer in municipal sewage treatment plant in
Western Greece. Journal of Environmental Science and Health.
Part. B, 48, 800–813.
Steele, W. B., Garcia, S. N., Huggett, D. B., Venables, B. J., Barnes
Iii, S. E., and La Point, T.W., 2013. Tissue-specific
bioconcentration of the synthetic steroid hormone medroxyprogesterone acetate in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 36, 1120–1126.
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-toxicology-andpharmacology/.
Sumpter, J. P., 2009. Protecting aquatic organisms from chemicals:
the harsh realities. Philosophical Transactions Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, 367, 3877–3894.
Valley, L. J., Zemann, M., Wolf, L., Pöschko, A., Schmidt, N.,
Sawarieh, A., Seder, N., Tiehm, A., Hötzl, H., and Goldscheider,
N., 2014. Sources and processes affecting the spatio-temporal
distribution of pharmaceuticals and X-ray contrast media in the
water resources of the. Science of the Total Environment, 489,
100–114.
Cross-references
Ecological Monitoring
Nonpoint Source Pollution
PHI SCALE
Joseph F. Donoghue
School of Geology, Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, OK, USA
Synonyms
Phi grade scale
Definition
The phi scale is a sediment particle size scale, defined as
a logarithmic transformation of the geometric UddenWentworth grain size scale (AGI, 2013). The phi diameter
is calculated as the negative logarithm to the base 2 of the
particle diameter (in millimeters).
Discussion
The phi scale was introduced by Krumbein (1934, 1938)
as a convenient means of visualizing and statistically analyzing sediment grain size distributions over a wide range
of particle sizes. The earlier Udden-Wentworth scale is a
millimeter-based scale, with an unchanging ratio between
class limits. The phi scale allows more emphasis for the
finer grain sizes. Phi size values for the sediment class
limits range from À5 phi (for a diameter of 32 mm, or very
coarse pebble size) down to +10 phi (for a diameter of
1/1,024 mm, or clay size). The scale was developed
specifically as a statistical device to permit the direct
application of conventional statistical practices to
sedimentary data.
The phi scale has distinct advantages over geometric
size scales. Tanner (1969) summarized some of the advantages as follows: geometric basis; equal spacing of size
class divisions, with integers representing the limits of
the Wentworth size classes; simple nomenclature; potential for fine subdivisions; inclusion of a wide range of
grain sizes; wide acceptance; a close match of boundaries
between the three important “super classes” (gravel, sand,
silt + clay) with the widely recognized deficiencies at
about À1 phi (2 mm) and +4 phi (1/16 mm); ease of plotting on ordinary probability axes; adaptability of phi units
to a variety of sophisticated statistical procedures; ease of
interpretation of non-Gaussian data; and ready availability
of sieve screens in standard phi sizes.
Due to its nonlinear and dimensionless nature, the phi
scale presents some challenges in reporting, especially
outside the field of sedimentology. As a consequence,
results are often reported in both phi units and metric units.
Care must be taken in such cases to stipulate how the data
were transformed.
Bibliography
AGI, 2013. Glossary of Geology. American Geosciences Institute.
http://www.agiweb.org/pubs/glossary/#online.
Krumbein, W. C., 1934. Size frequency distributions of sediments.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 4, 65–77.
PHI SCALE
483