Nevertheless, they are not always affordable, especially
for developing countries. Additionally, there are many
places around the world where sewage treatment plants
are still not available and domestic sewage is discarded
untreated directly into the environment, including in
estuaries. Leachate from landfills, inadequate disposal of
unused medicines, and the wash off of personal care
products are also important sources of pharmaceuticals.
The use of pharmaceuticals in hospitals and households
are quite different, once some drugs (e.g., certain antibiotics) are only used in hospitals, although others only prescribed by practitioners (Kümmerer, 2001). The predicted
concentrations of antibiotics in hospital effluents are in the
range of the semi-maximum inhibitory concentration
(MIC 50 ) of sensitive pathogenic bacteria for some
active substances; hence the development of antibacterial
resistance in the environment cannot be excluded
(Kümmerer, 2001).
Many animal operations, including livestock and
aquaculture, generate manure that also contains antibiotics and other drugs (Liu et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015;
Steele et al., 2013). Veterinary drugs, comparing to
human pharmaceuticals are more likely to directly contaminate soil and groundwater. The most important
routes of entry of these pharmaceuticals into estuarine
environments are likely to be the direct discharge of
aquaculture products, the excretion of substances in
urine and feces of livestock animals, and the wash off
of topical treatments (Boxall et al., 2003).
A striking difference between pharmaceuticals and
other contaminants with respect to environmental release
is that pharmaceuticals have the potential for ubiquitous
direct release into the environment worldwide, anywhere
that humans live or visit (Daughton and Ternes, 1999).
Nevertheless, the behavior and fate of pharmaceuticals
and their metabolites in the coastal systems is not known.
The low volatility of pharmaceuticals suggests that their
distribution will occur through aqueous transport and
interactions with suspended particulate materials, as well
as via food web transfer. Several classes of pharmaceuticals seem to have wide range of persistence in aquatic
environments, and some are highly persistent (Cuong
et al., 2011).
Environmental screenings were conducted on groundwater, surface water, treated wastewater, and even
coastal waters (e.g., Halling-Sorensen et al., 1998;
Kümmerer, 2001; Fent et al., 2006; Lisboa et al., 2013;
Stamatis and Konstantinou, 2013; Valley et al., 2014).
Evidences have already been found demonstrating relationships between the presence of certain pharmaceuticals and their toxicity in aquatic biota and humans
(Daughton and Ternes, 1999). Acutely toxic levels of
pharmaceutical compounds were identified in laboratory
tests using algae, zooplankton, and fish (Fent et al.,
2006). Existing knowledge about residues of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems indicate that they are unlikely to
pose a risk for acute toxicity (Cuong et al., 2011). Recent
studies are focusing on evaluating the biological effects
of mixtures of pharmaceuticals that are mechanically
linked or chemicals from different classes that may cause
drug-drug interactions (Arnold et al., 2013; Metcalfe,
2013). However, the environmental significance of pharmaceuticals in estuaries remains poorly understood and
there is a paucity of information on their fate in the environment. Further investigations about the long-term fate
and impacts of pharmaceuticals in coastal ecosystem are
needed.
Summary
A wide range of pharmaceuticals including analgesics,
antibiotics, and stimulants are detected in the environment, including coastal ecosystems. The major sources
of these contaminations are municipal and hospital wastewater treatment plants. Today, pharmaceuticals can be
found, at trace levels, widely in a variety of environments,
including estuaries. Many of them show persistence to
biodegradation in the environment; therefore they may
bioaccumulate in living organisms potentially causing
adverse effects.
Bibliography
Arnold, K. E., Boxall, A. B. A., Brown, A. R., Cuthbert, R. J., Gaw,
S., Thomas, H., Jobling, S., Madden, J. C., Metcalfe, C. D.,
Naidoo, V., Shore, R. F., Smits, J. E., Taggart, M. A., Thompson,
H. M., Cuthbert, J., and Hutchinson, T. H., 2013. Assessing the
exposure risk and impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment
on individuals and ecosystems assessing the exposure risk and
impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment on individuals
and ecosystems. Biology Letters, 9, 1–4.
Boxall, A., Kolpin, D., and Holling-sorensen, B., 2003. Are Veterinary medicines causing environmental risks. Environmental
Science and Technology, 37, 286–294.
Bradley, P. M., Barber, L. B., Kolpin, D. W., McMahon, P. B., and
Chapelle, F. H., 2007. Biotransformation of caffeine, cotinine,
and nicotine in stream sediments: implications for use as wastewater indicators. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 26,
1116–1121.
Cuong, D. M., Kim, K.-W., Toan, T., and Phu, T. D., 2011.
Source, fate, toxicological effect and removal technology of
paharmaceuticals in the environment. Geosystem Engeneering,
14, 35–42.
Daughton, C. G., and Ternes, T. A., 1999. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change?
Environmental Health Perspectives, 107(Suppl), 907–938.
Doll, T. E., and Frimmel, F. H., 2004. Kinetic study of
photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine, clofibric acid,
iomeprol and iopromide assisted by different TiO2 materials–
determination of intermediates and reaction pathways. Water
Research, 38, 955–964.
Fent, K., Weston, A., and Caminada, D., 2006. Ecotoxicology of
human pharmaceuticals. Aquatic Toxicology, 76, 122–159.
Gatidou, G., Thomaidis, N. S., Stasinakis, A. S., and Lekkas, T. D.,
2007. Simultaneous determination of the endocrine disrupting
compounds nonylphenol, nonylphenol ethoxylates, triclosan
and bisphenol A in wastewater and sewage sludge by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography
A, 1138, 32–41.
Halling-Sorensen, B., Nielsen, S. N., Lanzky, P. F., Ingerslev, F.,
Holten Lutzhoft, H. C., and Jorgensen, S. E., 1998. Pergamon
chemosphere. Chemosphere, 36, 357–393.
482
PHARMACEUTICALS
for developing countries. Additionally, there are many
places around the world where sewage treatment plants
are still not available and domestic sewage is discarded
untreated directly into the environment, including in
estuaries. Leachate from landfills, inadequate disposal of
unused medicines, and the wash off of personal care
products are also important sources of pharmaceuticals.
The use of pharmaceuticals in hospitals and households
are quite different, once some drugs (e.g., certain antibiotics) are only used in hospitals, although others only prescribed by practitioners (Kümmerer, 2001). The predicted
concentrations of antibiotics in hospital effluents are in the
range of the semi-maximum inhibitory concentration
(MIC 50 ) of sensitive pathogenic bacteria for some
active substances; hence the development of antibacterial
resistance in the environment cannot be excluded
(Kümmerer, 2001).
Many animal operations, including livestock and
aquaculture, generate manure that also contains antibiotics and other drugs (Liu et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015;
Steele et al., 2013). Veterinary drugs, comparing to
human pharmaceuticals are more likely to directly contaminate soil and groundwater. The most important
routes of entry of these pharmaceuticals into estuarine
environments are likely to be the direct discharge of
aquaculture products, the excretion of substances in
urine and feces of livestock animals, and the wash off
of topical treatments (Boxall et al., 2003).
A striking difference between pharmaceuticals and
other contaminants with respect to environmental release
is that pharmaceuticals have the potential for ubiquitous
direct release into the environment worldwide, anywhere
that humans live or visit (Daughton and Ternes, 1999).
Nevertheless, the behavior and fate of pharmaceuticals
and their metabolites in the coastal systems is not known.
The low volatility of pharmaceuticals suggests that their
distribution will occur through aqueous transport and
interactions with suspended particulate materials, as well
as via food web transfer. Several classes of pharmaceuticals seem to have wide range of persistence in aquatic
environments, and some are highly persistent (Cuong
et al., 2011).
Environmental screenings were conducted on groundwater, surface water, treated wastewater, and even
coastal waters (e.g., Halling-Sorensen et al., 1998;
Kümmerer, 2001; Fent et al., 2006; Lisboa et al., 2013;
Stamatis and Konstantinou, 2013; Valley et al., 2014).
Evidences have already been found demonstrating relationships between the presence of certain pharmaceuticals and their toxicity in aquatic biota and humans
(Daughton and Ternes, 1999). Acutely toxic levels of
pharmaceutical compounds were identified in laboratory
tests using algae, zooplankton, and fish (Fent et al.,
2006). Existing knowledge about residues of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems indicate that they are unlikely to
pose a risk for acute toxicity (Cuong et al., 2011). Recent
studies are focusing on evaluating the biological effects
of mixtures of pharmaceuticals that are mechanically
linked or chemicals from different classes that may cause
drug-drug interactions (Arnold et al., 2013; Metcalfe,
2013). However, the environmental significance of pharmaceuticals in estuaries remains poorly understood and
there is a paucity of information on their fate in the environment. Further investigations about the long-term fate
and impacts of pharmaceuticals in coastal ecosystem are
needed.
Summary
A wide range of pharmaceuticals including analgesics,
antibiotics, and stimulants are detected in the environment, including coastal ecosystems. The major sources
of these contaminations are municipal and hospital wastewater treatment plants. Today, pharmaceuticals can be
found, at trace levels, widely in a variety of environments,
including estuaries. Many of them show persistence to
biodegradation in the environment; therefore they may
bioaccumulate in living organisms potentially causing
adverse effects.
Bibliography
Arnold, K. E., Boxall, A. B. A., Brown, A. R., Cuthbert, R. J., Gaw,
S., Thomas, H., Jobling, S., Madden, J. C., Metcalfe, C. D.,
Naidoo, V., Shore, R. F., Smits, J. E., Taggart, M. A., Thompson,
H. M., Cuthbert, J., and Hutchinson, T. H., 2013. Assessing the
exposure risk and impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment
on individuals and ecosystems assessing the exposure risk and
impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment on individuals
and ecosystems. Biology Letters, 9, 1–4.
Boxall, A., Kolpin, D., and Holling-sorensen, B., 2003. Are Veterinary medicines causing environmental risks. Environmental
Science and Technology, 37, 286–294.
Bradley, P. M., Barber, L. B., Kolpin, D. W., McMahon, P. B., and
Chapelle, F. H., 2007. Biotransformation of caffeine, cotinine,
and nicotine in stream sediments: implications for use as wastewater indicators. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 26,
1116–1121.
Cuong, D. M., Kim, K.-W., Toan, T., and Phu, T. D., 2011.
Source, fate, toxicological effect and removal technology of
paharmaceuticals in the environment. Geosystem Engeneering,
14, 35–42.
Daughton, C. G., and Ternes, T. A., 1999. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change?
Environmental Health Perspectives, 107(Suppl), 907–938.
Doll, T. E., and Frimmel, F. H., 2004. Kinetic study of
photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine, clofibric acid,
iomeprol and iopromide assisted by different TiO2 materials–
determination of intermediates and reaction pathways. Water
Research, 38, 955–964.
Fent, K., Weston, A., and Caminada, D., 2006. Ecotoxicology of
human pharmaceuticals. Aquatic Toxicology, 76, 122–159.
Gatidou, G., Thomaidis, N. S., Stasinakis, A. S., and Lekkas, T. D.,
2007. Simultaneous determination of the endocrine disrupting
compounds nonylphenol, nonylphenol ethoxylates, triclosan
and bisphenol A in wastewater and sewage sludge by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography
A, 1138, 32–41.
Halling-Sorensen, B., Nielsen, S. N., Lanzky, P. F., Ingerslev, F.,
Holten Lutzhoft, H. C., and Jorgensen, S. E., 1998. Pergamon
chemosphere. Chemosphere, 36, 357–393.
482
PHARMACEUTICALS