Lovelock, C. E., and Ball, M. C., 2002. Influence of salinity on photosynthesis of halophytes. In Läuchli, A., and Lüttge, U. (eds.),
Salinity: Environment-Plants-Molecules. Utrecht: Kluwer,
pp. 315–339.
Lugo, A. E., 1980. Mangrove ecosystems: successional or steady
state? Biotropica, 12(Supplement), 65–72.
Lugo, A. E., and Snedaker, S. C., 1974. The ecology of mangroves.
Annual Reviews in Ecology and Systematics, 5, 39–64.
Macnae, W., 1968. A general account of the fauna and flora of the
mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-Pacific Region.
Advances in Marine Biology, 6, 73–270.
Manson, R. A., Loneragan, N. R., Skilleter, G. A., and Phinn, S. R.,
2005. An evaluation of the evidence for linkages between mangroves and fisheries: a synthesis of the literature and identification of research directions. Oceanography and Marine
Biology: An Annual Review, 43, 483–513.
Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S. J. M., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood,
M., Kirton, L. G., Meynecke, J.–. O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H. M.,
Sasekumar, A., and Somerfield, P. J., 2008. The habitat function
of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: a review. Aquatic
Botany, 89, 155–185.
Nordhaus, I., Salewski, T., and Jennerjahn, T. C., 2011. Food preferences of mangrove crabs related to leaf nitrogen compounds
in the Segara Anakan Lagoon, Java, Indonesia. Journal of Sea
Research, 65, 414–426.
Odum, E. P., 1981. The effects of stress on the trajectory of ecological
succession. In Barrett, G. W., and Rosenberg, R. (eds.), Stress
Effects on Natural Ecosystems. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 43–48.
Polidoro, B. A., Carpenter, K. E., Collins, L., Duke, N. C., Ellison,
A. C., Ellison, J. C., Farnsworth, E. J., Fernando, E. S.,
Kathiresan, K., Koedam, N. E., Livingstone, S. R., Miyagi, T.,
Moore, G. E., Nam, V. N., Ong, J. E., Primavera, J. H., Salmo,
S. G., III, Sanciangco, J. C., Sukardjo, S., Wang, Y., and Yong,
J. M. W. H., 2010. The loss of species: mangrove extinction risk
and geographic areas of global concern. PLoS ONE, 5, e10095,
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095.
Popp, M., 1995. Salt resistance in herbaceous halophytes and mangroves. Progress in Botany, 56, 416–429.
Reef, R., Feller, I. C., and Lovelock, C. E., 2010. Nutrition of mangroves. Tree Physiology, 30, 1148–1160.
Ricklefs, R. E., Schwarzbach, A. E., and Renner, S. S., 2006. Rate
of lineage origin explains the diversity anomaly in the world's
mangrove vegetation. American Naturalist, 168, 805–810.
Saenger, P., 2002. Mangrove Ecology and Silviculture and Conservation. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Saintilan, N., Wilson, N. C., Rogers, K., Rajkavan, A., and Krauss,
K., 2014. Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Global Change Biology, 20, 147–157.
Smith, T. J., III, 1992. Forest structure. In Alongi, D. M., and Robertson, A. I. (eds.), Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. Washington
DC: American Geophysical Union, pp. 101–136.
Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., and Collins, L., 2010. World Atlas of
Mangroves. London: Earthscan.
Souza, W. P., Kennedy, P. G., Mitchell, B. J., and Ordonez, B., 2007.
Supply-side ecology in mangroves: Do propagule dispersal and
seedling establishment explain forest structure? Ecological
Monographs, 77, 53–76.
Tomlinson, P. B., 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Vaslet, A., Phillips, D. L., France, C., Feller, I. C., and Baldwin,
C. C., 2012. The relative importance of mangrove and seagrass
beds as feeding areas for resident and transient fishes among different mangrove habitats in Florida and Belize: evidence from
dietary and stable isotope analyses. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 434(435), 81–93.
Woodroffe, C. D., 2003. Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cross-references
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Connectivity
Forested Wetland Habitat
Species Zonation
Tidal Flat
Trophic Dynamics
MARINE/FRESHWATER MIXING
Vic Semeniuk
V & C Semeniuk Research Group, Warwick, WA,
Australia
Definition
In an estuarine context, the mixing of marine and freshwater refers to the dynamics of interchange and dilution by
freshwater delivered mainly by riverine influx and of
marine water delivered by tides, wind-driven currents,
and wave action.
The estuarine environment: a zone of mixing
between seawater and freshwater
The essence of an estuary is that it is a river-to-marine
transitional environment where marine salinity is measurably diluted by (riverine) freshwater in a valley tract,
an inlet, a coastal lagoon, or an embayment, producing
a salinity gradient from the river to the sea (Cameron
and Pritchard, 1963; Pritchard, 1967). As such, the
estuarine environment is the zone of mixing between
freshwater derived from river sources and marine
water from the sea. In terms of hydrochemistry, biota,
and processes, there is a riverine component toward
the landward part of an estuary and marine component
seaward (Day, 1981; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Allen and
Posamentier, 1993; Semeniuk et al., 2000; Semeniuk
and Wurm, 2000).
Landward parts of estuaries with perennially flowing
rivers can remain freshwater throughout the year. Landward parts of estuaries with seasonally flowing rivers
fluctuate between freshwater and brackish or between
freshwater and marine salinity. At the other extreme, the
marine environment generally remains at seawater salinity but, with seasonally strongly flowing rivers, fluctuates
between marine and brackish or even freshwater (where
freshwater riverine plumes enter the sea). Over the period
of a year, a season, or a week, depending on flow rates
and volume of delivery of river water and tidal flows,
the central estuarine basin can remain perennially brackish or may fluctuate between freshwater and marine with
periods of brackish water or fluctuate between brackish
and marine. In areas of high evaporation and minimal
river influx, the headwaters or even main waters of an
estuary may become hypersaline.
404
MARINE/FRESHWATER MIXING
Salinity: Environment-Plants-Molecules. Utrecht: Kluwer,
pp. 315–339.
Lugo, A. E., 1980. Mangrove ecosystems: successional or steady
state? Biotropica, 12(Supplement), 65–72.
Lugo, A. E., and Snedaker, S. C., 1974. The ecology of mangroves.
Annual Reviews in Ecology and Systematics, 5, 39–64.
Macnae, W., 1968. A general account of the fauna and flora of the
mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-Pacific Region.
Advances in Marine Biology, 6, 73–270.
Manson, R. A., Loneragan, N. R., Skilleter, G. A., and Phinn, S. R.,
2005. An evaluation of the evidence for linkages between mangroves and fisheries: a synthesis of the literature and identification of research directions. Oceanography and Marine
Biology: An Annual Review, 43, 483–513.
Nagelkerken, I., Blaber, S. J. M., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood,
M., Kirton, L. G., Meynecke, J.–. O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H. M.,
Sasekumar, A., and Somerfield, P. J., 2008. The habitat function
of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: a review. Aquatic
Botany, 89, 155–185.
Nordhaus, I., Salewski, T., and Jennerjahn, T. C., 2011. Food preferences of mangrove crabs related to leaf nitrogen compounds
in the Segara Anakan Lagoon, Java, Indonesia. Journal of Sea
Research, 65, 414–426.
Odum, E. P., 1981. The effects of stress on the trajectory of ecological
succession. In Barrett, G. W., and Rosenberg, R. (eds.), Stress
Effects on Natural Ecosystems. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 43–48.
Polidoro, B. A., Carpenter, K. E., Collins, L., Duke, N. C., Ellison,
A. C., Ellison, J. C., Farnsworth, E. J., Fernando, E. S.,
Kathiresan, K., Koedam, N. E., Livingstone, S. R., Miyagi, T.,
Moore, G. E., Nam, V. N., Ong, J. E., Primavera, J. H., Salmo,
S. G., III, Sanciangco, J. C., Sukardjo, S., Wang, Y., and Yong,
J. M. W. H., 2010. The loss of species: mangrove extinction risk
and geographic areas of global concern. PLoS ONE, 5, e10095,
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095.
Popp, M., 1995. Salt resistance in herbaceous halophytes and mangroves. Progress in Botany, 56, 416–429.
Reef, R., Feller, I. C., and Lovelock, C. E., 2010. Nutrition of mangroves. Tree Physiology, 30, 1148–1160.
Ricklefs, R. E., Schwarzbach, A. E., and Renner, S. S., 2006. Rate
of lineage origin explains the diversity anomaly in the world's
mangrove vegetation. American Naturalist, 168, 805–810.
Saenger, P., 2002. Mangrove Ecology and Silviculture and Conservation. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Saintilan, N., Wilson, N. C., Rogers, K., Rajkavan, A., and Krauss,
K., 2014. Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Global Change Biology, 20, 147–157.
Smith, T. J., III, 1992. Forest structure. In Alongi, D. M., and Robertson, A. I. (eds.), Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. Washington
DC: American Geophysical Union, pp. 101–136.
Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., and Collins, L., 2010. World Atlas of
Mangroves. London: Earthscan.
Souza, W. P., Kennedy, P. G., Mitchell, B. J., and Ordonez, B., 2007.
Supply-side ecology in mangroves: Do propagule dispersal and
seedling establishment explain forest structure? Ecological
Monographs, 77, 53–76.
Tomlinson, P. B., 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Vaslet, A., Phillips, D. L., France, C., Feller, I. C., and Baldwin,
C. C., 2012. The relative importance of mangrove and seagrass
beds as feeding areas for resident and transient fishes among different mangrove habitats in Florida and Belize: evidence from
dietary and stable isotope analyses. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 434(435), 81–93.
Woodroffe, C. D., 2003. Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cross-references
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Connectivity
Forested Wetland Habitat
Species Zonation
Tidal Flat
Trophic Dynamics
MARINE/FRESHWATER MIXING
Vic Semeniuk
V & C Semeniuk Research Group, Warwick, WA,
Australia
Definition
In an estuarine context, the mixing of marine and freshwater refers to the dynamics of interchange and dilution by
freshwater delivered mainly by riverine influx and of
marine water delivered by tides, wind-driven currents,
and wave action.
The estuarine environment: a zone of mixing
between seawater and freshwater
The essence of an estuary is that it is a river-to-marine
transitional environment where marine salinity is measurably diluted by (riverine) freshwater in a valley tract,
an inlet, a coastal lagoon, or an embayment, producing
a salinity gradient from the river to the sea (Cameron
and Pritchard, 1963; Pritchard, 1967). As such, the
estuarine environment is the zone of mixing between
freshwater derived from river sources and marine
water from the sea. In terms of hydrochemistry, biota,
and processes, there is a riverine component toward
the landward part of an estuary and marine component
seaward (Day, 1981; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Allen and
Posamentier, 1993; Semeniuk et al., 2000; Semeniuk
and Wurm, 2000).
Landward parts of estuaries with perennially flowing
rivers can remain freshwater throughout the year. Landward parts of estuaries with seasonally flowing rivers
fluctuate between freshwater and brackish or between
freshwater and marine salinity. At the other extreme, the
marine environment generally remains at seawater salinity but, with seasonally strongly flowing rivers, fluctuates
between marine and brackish or even freshwater (where
freshwater riverine plumes enter the sea). Over the period
of a year, a season, or a week, depending on flow rates
and volume of delivery of river water and tidal flows,
the central estuarine basin can remain perennially brackish or may fluctuate between freshwater and marine with
periods of brackish water or fluctuate between brackish
and marine. In areas of high evaporation and minimal
river influx, the headwaters or even main waters of an
estuary may become hypersaline.
404
MARINE/FRESHWATER MIXING