ocean factors (e.g., sea level rise), the scope of communities that are stakeholders in the estuary is very broad. The
allocation of fisheries resources is perhaps where most of
the emphasis and analyses of estuarine equity have been
focused, especially where policies strive to reduce catch
and limit access to the resource in efforts to maintain
stocks. Limiting access to fisheries frequently has the
greatest impact on the small-scale, traditional fisher (e.g.,
Cochrane, 2000). This is an example where equity needs
are likely not being met. Ecotourism in estuaries is another
business area that is developing inequitably according to
some authors (Jamal et al., 2006), and they suggest the
fostering of ecotourism’s alternative potential for improving environmental, social, and cultural well-being of
people living on estuaries.
Summary
Achieving sustainability in estuaries is a test to coastal
societies around the world and requires constant attention
using adaptive management to ensure the “three pillars” of
the concept are achieved. A good strategy to move forward and tailor an individual estuary sustainability plan
to local requirements and values is to compare the various
institutional arrangements in place in different countries
with varying socio-ecological systems as they to strive
for estuarine sustainability (Ostrom, 2009).
Bibliography
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2013. About the convention
http://www.cbd.int/intro/default.shtml
(Accessed
June
24, 2013).
Cochrane, K. L., 2000. Reconciling sustainability, economic efficiency, and equity in fisheries: the one that got away? Fish and
Fisheries, 1, 3–21.
Hak, T., Moldan, B., and Dahl, A. L. (eds.), 2007. Measuring Progress Towards Sustainability: Assessment of Indicators. Washington, D.C.: Scientific Committee on Problems of the
Environment, International Council for Science, pp. 1–26.
Jamal, T., Borges, M., and Stronza, A., 2006. The institutionalisation of ecotourism: certification, cultural equity and praxis.
Journal of Ecotourism, 5, 145–175.
Liu, S., Costanza, R., Troy, A., D’Aagostino, J., and Mates, W.,
2010. Valuing New Jersey’s ecosystem services and natural capital: a spatially explicit benefit transfer approach. Environmental
Management, 45, 1271–1285.
Macintosh, D. J., Ashton, E. C., and Havanon, S., 2002. Mangrove
remediation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong
mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science, 55, 331–345.
Ostrom, E., 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability
of social-ecological systems. Science, 325, 419–422.
Peris-Mora, E., Orejas, J. M. D., Subirats, A., Ibanez, S., and
Alvarez, P., 2005. Development of a system of indicators for
sustainable port management. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50,
1649–1660.
United Nations, 1987. Our common future. http://conspect.nl/pdf/
Our_Common_Future-Brundtland_Report_1987.pdf.
Cross-references
Estuary Conservation
Sustainable Use
ESTUARINE TOTAL ECOSYSTEM METABOLISM
Autumn J. Oczkowski
1 and Brita J. Jessen
2
1
Atlantic Ecology Division, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Narragansett, RI, USA
2
Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode
Island, Narragansett, RI, USA
Definition
Estuarine total ecosystem metabolism is the sum of all
metabolic processes associated with primary production,
secondary production, and respiration in an estuary.
Introduction
Each day as the sun rises and retires the beautiful green
bays like great creatures breathe in and out. By day photosynthetic production of food and oxygen by plants is plentiful, but day and night there is also a furious feasting
(Odum and Hoskin 1958).
Every living system, from the scale of an individual
organism to that of a complex and interconnected ecosystem, consumes energy as a means to create or process
organic material. These transfers of energy and organic
material production, consumption, and use are the functions of metabolism. The rate of metabolism for a given
system can shed light on questions concerning its function
and interaction with other systems. What is the maximum
energy or product yield of an estuary? Will the rate of
estuarine production respond to changes of external inputs
such as sewage diversion or modified river flow? Here we
briefly review the historical development of metabolism
studies for estuaries and the range of techniques
researchers have used as a means to answer questions on
estuarine system function, connectivity, and change.
Ecosystem metabolism
Measurements of the components of ecosystem metabolism (e.g., production, respiration, heat loss), as well as
the sum of the absolute values of these components
(total ecosystem metabolism or TEM), were an integral
part of the development of the ecosystem concept in ecology (Figure 1). As the idea developed that plants, animals,
and their surrounding physical environment could be
described and quantified as distinct units of energy or
resources, the question naturally arose as to whether ecosystems were in equilibrium, where the inputs to the system equaled the outputs exported from the system (see
Golley, 1993). Some of the earliest studies exploring this
question were conducted by H.T. Odum in Florida springs,
but also by H.T. and E.P. Odum at the Eniwetok Atoll,
Marshall Islands (Odum and Odum, 1955). The transfer
of energy within an ecosystem was expressed as the ratio
of primary production (P) to respiration (R), where primary production is the organic matter made via photosynthesis using the energy of the sun, and respiration is the
breakdown of organic matter which is then converted back
300
ESTUARINE TOTAL ECOSYSTEM METABOLISM
allocation of fisheries resources is perhaps where most of
the emphasis and analyses of estuarine equity have been
focused, especially where policies strive to reduce catch
and limit access to the resource in efforts to maintain
stocks. Limiting access to fisheries frequently has the
greatest impact on the small-scale, traditional fisher (e.g.,
Cochrane, 2000). This is an example where equity needs
are likely not being met. Ecotourism in estuaries is another
business area that is developing inequitably according to
some authors (Jamal et al., 2006), and they suggest the
fostering of ecotourism’s alternative potential for improving environmental, social, and cultural well-being of
people living on estuaries.
Summary
Achieving sustainability in estuaries is a test to coastal
societies around the world and requires constant attention
using adaptive management to ensure the “three pillars” of
the concept are achieved. A good strategy to move forward and tailor an individual estuary sustainability plan
to local requirements and values is to compare the various
institutional arrangements in place in different countries
with varying socio-ecological systems as they to strive
for estuarine sustainability (Ostrom, 2009).
Bibliography
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2013. About the convention
http://www.cbd.int/intro/default.shtml
(Accessed
June
24, 2013).
Cochrane, K. L., 2000. Reconciling sustainability, economic efficiency, and equity in fisheries: the one that got away? Fish and
Fisheries, 1, 3–21.
Hak, T., Moldan, B., and Dahl, A. L. (eds.), 2007. Measuring Progress Towards Sustainability: Assessment of Indicators. Washington, D.C.: Scientific Committee on Problems of the
Environment, International Council for Science, pp. 1–26.
Jamal, T., Borges, M., and Stronza, A., 2006. The institutionalisation of ecotourism: certification, cultural equity and praxis.
Journal of Ecotourism, 5, 145–175.
Liu, S., Costanza, R., Troy, A., D’Aagostino, J., and Mates, W.,
2010. Valuing New Jersey’s ecosystem services and natural capital: a spatially explicit benefit transfer approach. Environmental
Management, 45, 1271–1285.
Macintosh, D. J., Ashton, E. C., and Havanon, S., 2002. Mangrove
remediation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong
mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science, 55, 331–345.
Ostrom, E., 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability
of social-ecological systems. Science, 325, 419–422.
Peris-Mora, E., Orejas, J. M. D., Subirats, A., Ibanez, S., and
Alvarez, P., 2005. Development of a system of indicators for
sustainable port management. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50,
1649–1660.
United Nations, 1987. Our common future. http://conspect.nl/pdf/
Our_Common_Future-Brundtland_Report_1987.pdf.
Cross-references
Estuary Conservation
Sustainable Use
ESTUARINE TOTAL ECOSYSTEM METABOLISM
Autumn J. Oczkowski
1 and Brita J. Jessen
2
1
Atlantic Ecology Division, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Narragansett, RI, USA
2
Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode
Island, Narragansett, RI, USA
Definition
Estuarine total ecosystem metabolism is the sum of all
metabolic processes associated with primary production,
secondary production, and respiration in an estuary.
Introduction
Each day as the sun rises and retires the beautiful green
bays like great creatures breathe in and out. By day photosynthetic production of food and oxygen by plants is plentiful, but day and night there is also a furious feasting
(Odum and Hoskin 1958).
Every living system, from the scale of an individual
organism to that of a complex and interconnected ecosystem, consumes energy as a means to create or process
organic material. These transfers of energy and organic
material production, consumption, and use are the functions of metabolism. The rate of metabolism for a given
system can shed light on questions concerning its function
and interaction with other systems. What is the maximum
energy or product yield of an estuary? Will the rate of
estuarine production respond to changes of external inputs
such as sewage diversion or modified river flow? Here we
briefly review the historical development of metabolism
studies for estuaries and the range of techniques
researchers have used as a means to answer questions on
estuarine system function, connectivity, and change.
Ecosystem metabolism
Measurements of the components of ecosystem metabolism (e.g., production, respiration, heat loss), as well as
the sum of the absolute values of these components
(total ecosystem metabolism or TEM), were an integral
part of the development of the ecosystem concept in ecology (Figure 1). As the idea developed that plants, animals,
and their surrounding physical environment could be
described and quantified as distinct units of energy or
resources, the question naturally arose as to whether ecosystems were in equilibrium, where the inputs to the system equaled the outputs exported from the system (see
Golley, 1993). Some of the earliest studies exploring this
question were conducted by H.T. Odum in Florida springs,
but also by H.T. and E.P. Odum at the Eniwetok Atoll,
Marshall Islands (Odum and Odum, 1955). The transfer
of energy within an ecosystem was expressed as the ratio
of primary production (P) to respiration (R), where primary production is the organic matter made via photosynthesis using the energy of the sun, and respiration is the
breakdown of organic matter which is then converted back
300
ESTUARINE TOTAL ECOSYSTEM METABOLISM