Nixon, S., Buckley, B., Granger, S., and Bintz, J., 2001. Responses
of very shallow marine ecosystems to nutrient enrichment.
Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 7(5), 1457–1481.
NRC, 2000. Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing
the Effects of Nutrient Pollution. Washington, DC: National
Research Council/National Academy Press.
Odum, H. T., 1971. Environment, Power, and Society. New York:
Wiley.
Odum, H. T., 1983. Systems Ecology: An Introduction. New York:
Wiley.
Odum, H. T., 1994. Ecological and General Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology, 2nd edn. Niwot: University Press of
Colorado.
Odum, H. T., and Odum, E. C., 2000. Modeling for All Scales: An
Introduction to System Simulation. San Diego: Academic Press.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1971. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 1.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1972. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 2.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1975. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 3.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1976. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 4.
Rigler, F. H., and Peters, R. H., 1995. Science and limnology. In
Kinne, O. (ed.), Excellence in Ecology, Book 6. Oldendorf/Luhe:
International Ecology Institute.
Riley, G. A., 1946. Factors controlling phytoplankton populations
on Georges Bank. Journal of Marine Research, 6, 54–73.
Riley, G. A., 1947. A theoretical analysis of the zooplankton population of Georges Bank. Journal of Marine Research, 6,
104–113.
Riley, G. A., Stommel, H., and Bumpus, D. F., 1949. Quantitative
ecology of the plankton of the Western North Atlantic. Bulletin
of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, 12, 1–169.
Schindler, D. W., 1974. Eutrophication and recovery in experimental lakes: implications for lake management. Science, 184(4139),
897–899.
Solidoro, C., Bandelj, V., Cossarini, G., Libralato, S., and Melaku
Canu, D., 2009. Challenges for ecological modelling in
a changing world: global changes, sustainability and ecosystem
based management (preface). Ecological Modelling, 220,
2825–2827.
Steele, J. H., 1974. The Structure of Marine Ecosystems. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Streeter, H. W., and Phelps, E. B., 1925. A Study of the Pollution and
Natural Purification of the Ohio River, III: Factors Concerning
the Phenomena of Oxidation and Reaeration. Public Health Bulletin No. 146. Washington, DC: U.S. Public Health Service
(reprinted 1958; by the U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare).
Thomann, R. V., and Mueller, J. A., 1987. Principles of Surface Water
Quality Modeling and Control. New York: Harper and Row.
Travers, M., Shin, Y. J., Jennings, S., and Cury, P., 2007. Towards
end-to-end models for investigating the effects of climate and
fishing in marine ecosystems. Progress in Oceanography, 75,
751–770.
Ulanowicz, R. E., and Wulff, F., 1991. Comparing ecosystem process structures: the Chesapeake Bay and the Baltic Sea. In Cole,
J. J., Lovett, G. M., and Findlay, S. E. G. (eds.), Comparative
Analyses of Ecosystems: Patterns, Mechanisms and Theories.
New York: Springer, pp. 140–166.
US EPA, 1999. Protocol for Developing Nutrient TMDLs. Report
841-B-99-007. Washington, DC: Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
US EPA, 2010. Chesapeake Bay Total Maximum Daily Load for
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sediment. Annapolis: Chesapeake
Bay Program Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Voinov, A., and Bousquet, F., 2010. Modelling with stakeholders.
Environmental Modelling & Software, 25(11), 1268–1281.
Vollenweider, R. A., 1976. Advances in defining critical loading
levels for phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Memorie dell’
Istituto Italiano di Idrobiologia, 33, 53–83.
Volterra, V., 1926. Variations and fluctuations of the numbers of
individuals in animal species living together (reprinted Chapman, R. N., 1931; Animal Ecology. New York: McGraw Hill,
pp. 409–448).
Wetzel, R. L., and Wiegert, R. G., 1983. Ecosystem simulation
models: tools for the investigation and analysis of nitrogen
dynamics in coastal and marine ecosystems. In Carpenter, E. J.,
and Capone, D. G. (eds.), Nitrogen in the Marine Environment,
1st edn. New York: Academic, pp. 869–892.
Cross-references
Ecosystem-Based Management
Seagrass Production Models
ECOLOGICAL MONITORING
A. J. Underwood and M. G. Chapman
Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal
Cities, School of Biological Sciences, University of
Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Definition
Monitoring is quantitative sampling through time to detect
and measure changes in chemical, physical, or ecological
variables, especially related to environmental impacts.
Introduction
Monitoring is a frequent activity done for various purposes,
often the detection and management of environmental
disturbances (fishing, pollution, dredging, etc.), including
long-term changes, such as the predicted effects of climatic
change. Monitoring is routine sampling at specified times,
intervals and places to determine starting conditions and
subsequent changes in ecological measures. These include
univariate measures (e.g., abundance of a single species)
or multivariate measures (e.g., patterns of concentrations
of a suite of hydrocarbons). Whatever the measure, the
objective is to detect changes in what is being measured
and to identify (where possible) whether the changes are
natural or man-made and whether they constitute unwanted
changes, such as environmental impacts or pollution.
Goals
One common problem of monitoring programs is that
goals are often not clear and, therefore, sampling is
often inappropriate to detect the changes that were the
point of the exercise (Green, 1979). Unless it is clear
what is to be monitored and why, preferably in relation
to predictions (hypotheses) about the sorts of changes
that might occur, sampling cannot be designed and
ECOLOGICAL MONITORING
223
of very shallow marine ecosystems to nutrient enrichment.
Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 7(5), 1457–1481.
NRC, 2000. Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing
the Effects of Nutrient Pollution. Washington, DC: National
Research Council/National Academy Press.
Odum, H. T., 1971. Environment, Power, and Society. New York:
Wiley.
Odum, H. T., 1983. Systems Ecology: An Introduction. New York:
Wiley.
Odum, H. T., 1994. Ecological and General Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology, 2nd edn. Niwot: University Press of
Colorado.
Odum, H. T., and Odum, E. C., 2000. Modeling for All Scales: An
Introduction to System Simulation. San Diego: Academic Press.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1971. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 1.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1972. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 2.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1975. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 3.
Patten, B. C. (ed.), 1976. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. New York: Academic Press, Vol. 4.
Rigler, F. H., and Peters, R. H., 1995. Science and limnology. In
Kinne, O. (ed.), Excellence in Ecology, Book 6. Oldendorf/Luhe:
International Ecology Institute.
Riley, G. A., 1946. Factors controlling phytoplankton populations
on Georges Bank. Journal of Marine Research, 6, 54–73.
Riley, G. A., 1947. A theoretical analysis of the zooplankton population of Georges Bank. Journal of Marine Research, 6,
104–113.
Riley, G. A., Stommel, H., and Bumpus, D. F., 1949. Quantitative
ecology of the plankton of the Western North Atlantic. Bulletin
of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, 12, 1–169.
Schindler, D. W., 1974. Eutrophication and recovery in experimental lakes: implications for lake management. Science, 184(4139),
897–899.
Solidoro, C., Bandelj, V., Cossarini, G., Libralato, S., and Melaku
Canu, D., 2009. Challenges for ecological modelling in
a changing world: global changes, sustainability and ecosystem
based management (preface). Ecological Modelling, 220,
2825–2827.
Steele, J. H., 1974. The Structure of Marine Ecosystems. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Streeter, H. W., and Phelps, E. B., 1925. A Study of the Pollution and
Natural Purification of the Ohio River, III: Factors Concerning
the Phenomena of Oxidation and Reaeration. Public Health Bulletin No. 146. Washington, DC: U.S. Public Health Service
(reprinted 1958; by the U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare).
Thomann, R. V., and Mueller, J. A., 1987. Principles of Surface Water
Quality Modeling and Control. New York: Harper and Row.
Travers, M., Shin, Y. J., Jennings, S., and Cury, P., 2007. Towards
end-to-end models for investigating the effects of climate and
fishing in marine ecosystems. Progress in Oceanography, 75,
751–770.
Ulanowicz, R. E., and Wulff, F., 1991. Comparing ecosystem process structures: the Chesapeake Bay and the Baltic Sea. In Cole,
J. J., Lovett, G. M., and Findlay, S. E. G. (eds.), Comparative
Analyses of Ecosystems: Patterns, Mechanisms and Theories.
New York: Springer, pp. 140–166.
US EPA, 1999. Protocol for Developing Nutrient TMDLs. Report
841-B-99-007. Washington, DC: Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
US EPA, 2010. Chesapeake Bay Total Maximum Daily Load for
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sediment. Annapolis: Chesapeake
Bay Program Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Voinov, A., and Bousquet, F., 2010. Modelling with stakeholders.
Environmental Modelling & Software, 25(11), 1268–1281.
Vollenweider, R. A., 1976. Advances in defining critical loading
levels for phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Memorie dell’
Istituto Italiano di Idrobiologia, 33, 53–83.
Volterra, V., 1926. Variations and fluctuations of the numbers of
individuals in animal species living together (reprinted Chapman, R. N., 1931; Animal Ecology. New York: McGraw Hill,
pp. 409–448).
Wetzel, R. L., and Wiegert, R. G., 1983. Ecosystem simulation
models: tools for the investigation and analysis of nitrogen
dynamics in coastal and marine ecosystems. In Carpenter, E. J.,
and Capone, D. G. (eds.), Nitrogen in the Marine Environment,
1st edn. New York: Academic, pp. 869–892.
Cross-references
Ecosystem-Based Management
Seagrass Production Models
ECOLOGICAL MONITORING
A. J. Underwood and M. G. Chapman
Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal
Cities, School of Biological Sciences, University of
Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Definition
Monitoring is quantitative sampling through time to detect
and measure changes in chemical, physical, or ecological
variables, especially related to environmental impacts.
Introduction
Monitoring is a frequent activity done for various purposes,
often the detection and management of environmental
disturbances (fishing, pollution, dredging, etc.), including
long-term changes, such as the predicted effects of climatic
change. Monitoring is routine sampling at specified times,
intervals and places to determine starting conditions and
subsequent changes in ecological measures. These include
univariate measures (e.g., abundance of a single species)
or multivariate measures (e.g., patterns of concentrations
of a suite of hydrocarbons). Whatever the measure, the
objective is to detect changes in what is being measured
and to identify (where possible) whether the changes are
natural or man-made and whether they constitute unwanted
changes, such as environmental impacts or pollution.
Goals
One common problem of monitoring programs is that
goals are often not clear and, therefore, sampling is
often inappropriate to detect the changes that were the
point of the exercise (Green, 1979). Unless it is clear
what is to be monitored and why, preferably in relation
to predictions (hypotheses) about the sorts of changes
that might occur, sampling cannot be designed and
ECOLOGICAL MONITORING
223