community fisheries management. Governments and scientists have concerns about the impacts of harvesting on
populations, and the conflicting perceptions about the status of the shellfish stocks have amplified the need for
co-management. Using examples from small-scale fisheries from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Europe, North
America, and the Pacific, he concluded that most of the
examples were at an early stage of implementation and
the reason for introducing measures was because of
overexploitation of the fishery stock or to resolve conflicts
between users. Co-management is seen as one way to
increase the resilience in the system to environmental
and other changes. This management system depends on
the integration of knowledge, the processes used, and the
degree of power sharing (Wilson et al., 2006; Berkes,
2009). Three stages are described in co-management
(Plummer, 2006; Butler et al., 2012). These are (1) “independence,” where there is limited interaction between
government and local people; (2) “association,” the start
of an exchange of information and resource evaluation
and shared vision; and (3) “integration,” where there is
a sharing of the consequences of actions and resolving
conflicts. Traditional fisheries often contain unlicensed
fishing for general or cultural use, whereas some
co-fisheries arrangements are controlled under treaties.
In Torres Strait, these include dugong, green turtle
(separate management plans for each), and the reef fisheries, which include both fish and invertebrates (Kwan et al.,
2006). The objectives of the plans are to achieve sustainability, revive TEK, and allow islanders control in decision making. Although this is an example of
co-management, Weiss et al. (2012) suggests that this is
dominated by top-down government management. One
aspect of co-management is that it depends on resources;
for example, in Torres Strait, the fisheries management is
well resourced compared with neighboring Melanesian
nations (Butler et al., 2012). Successful co-management
is a knowledge partnership and can be difficult where it
involves indigenous peoples whose knowledge is based
on different worldviews (Berkes, 2009). Using science
together with traditional knowledge is not simply
a synthesis of the two kinds of knowledge, but an ability
to develop mutual respect and trust which may not always
succeed (Spak, 2005).
Ecosystem-based management
The ecosystem-based management tool was originally
developed in response to the impacts of fishing on fish
stocks and habitat degeneration due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Fishers were targeted because their communities have biological, oceanographic, economic,
social, and cultural aspects which can contribute to the
fisheries management (Aswani, 2011). The challenge is
to validate the information and create policies and legal
ways to integrate information into fishery-management
systems (Mathew, 2011). Some suggested ways of doing
this included recognizing fishers as holders of knowledge
and accepting customary law. It was also suggested that
governments and managers need to guarantee the
approaches to conservation will be fair and developed
under a system of co-management. It was felt that scientists need to overcome their reluctance to use nonspecialist
knowledge instead of data. They also need to support the
requirements of the communities. Finally, mechanisms
need to be established to guarantee that knowledge sharing will benefit and not harm the fishers. Knowledge
should be used to conserve the fish stocks and protect
the habitat for long-term food security. There should
be conflict resolutions in place and the propriety rights
of traditional knowledge will remain with the providers.
Integrated coastal management
This is defined as a continuous and dynamic process
allowing decisions to be made for the sustainable use of
development and protection of coastal and marine areas
and resources. The Haida Nation in northern British
Columbia has been resource owners and managers for thousands of years on Haida Gwaii, where they apply traditional
knowledge and experience to fisheries management. Their
approach is based on Haida ethics, principles or values of
respect, balance, interconnectedness, seeking wise council,
and responsibility. They demonstrate a commitment to
responsible and respectful management of marine resources
and ecosystems. Plans for the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNVIMA) are being led by the
Council of the Haida Nation, under the Haida constitution
in an example of local community-based and
co-governance. The lead agency is Fisheries and Oceans
Canada and their approach is for collaborative management
with Aboriginal peoples, a change from the previous
regime where government policies tended to displace first
nations from marine resources (Jones et al., 2010). This initiative was launched in March 2009 and is ongoing,
strengthened by court decisions and policies relating to
Aboriginal rights and title. This approach has resulted in
the establishment of a network of marine-protected areas
with levels of protection influenced by first nations and
marine resource management that includes principles of
social equity and ecosystem justice.
Conclusions
There is overwhelming support for including traditional
knowledge in resource management of estuarine and
coastal marine areas and an increasing number of examples where this has been shown to benefit all users. Worldwide, the extent of local or traditional knowledge is
patchy; some has been lost and in some countries local
fisheries knowledge may be largely exclusive to women
(Ruddle and Hickey, 2008). There is therefore an urgent
need to systematically collect as well as archive cultural,
historic, and contemporary information. These different
sources of information can then be combined using
geo-spatial information systems as suggested by De
Freitas et al. (2009). Their multilayer GIS database for
CULTURAL SEAFOOD MANAGEMENT
167
populations, and the conflicting perceptions about the status of the shellfish stocks have amplified the need for
co-management. Using examples from small-scale fisheries from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Europe, North
America, and the Pacific, he concluded that most of the
examples were at an early stage of implementation and
the reason for introducing measures was because of
overexploitation of the fishery stock or to resolve conflicts
between users. Co-management is seen as one way to
increase the resilience in the system to environmental
and other changes. This management system depends on
the integration of knowledge, the processes used, and the
degree of power sharing (Wilson et al., 2006; Berkes,
2009). Three stages are described in co-management
(Plummer, 2006; Butler et al., 2012). These are (1) “independence,” where there is limited interaction between
government and local people; (2) “association,” the start
of an exchange of information and resource evaluation
and shared vision; and (3) “integration,” where there is
a sharing of the consequences of actions and resolving
conflicts. Traditional fisheries often contain unlicensed
fishing for general or cultural use, whereas some
co-fisheries arrangements are controlled under treaties.
In Torres Strait, these include dugong, green turtle
(separate management plans for each), and the reef fisheries, which include both fish and invertebrates (Kwan et al.,
2006). The objectives of the plans are to achieve sustainability, revive TEK, and allow islanders control in decision making. Although this is an example of
co-management, Weiss et al. (2012) suggests that this is
dominated by top-down government management. One
aspect of co-management is that it depends on resources;
for example, in Torres Strait, the fisheries management is
well resourced compared with neighboring Melanesian
nations (Butler et al., 2012). Successful co-management
is a knowledge partnership and can be difficult where it
involves indigenous peoples whose knowledge is based
on different worldviews (Berkes, 2009). Using science
together with traditional knowledge is not simply
a synthesis of the two kinds of knowledge, but an ability
to develop mutual respect and trust which may not always
succeed (Spak, 2005).
Ecosystem-based management
The ecosystem-based management tool was originally
developed in response to the impacts of fishing on fish
stocks and habitat degeneration due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Fishers were targeted because their communities have biological, oceanographic, economic,
social, and cultural aspects which can contribute to the
fisheries management (Aswani, 2011). The challenge is
to validate the information and create policies and legal
ways to integrate information into fishery-management
systems (Mathew, 2011). Some suggested ways of doing
this included recognizing fishers as holders of knowledge
and accepting customary law. It was also suggested that
governments and managers need to guarantee the
approaches to conservation will be fair and developed
under a system of co-management. It was felt that scientists need to overcome their reluctance to use nonspecialist
knowledge instead of data. They also need to support the
requirements of the communities. Finally, mechanisms
need to be established to guarantee that knowledge sharing will benefit and not harm the fishers. Knowledge
should be used to conserve the fish stocks and protect
the habitat for long-term food security. There should
be conflict resolutions in place and the propriety rights
of traditional knowledge will remain with the providers.
Integrated coastal management
This is defined as a continuous and dynamic process
allowing decisions to be made for the sustainable use of
development and protection of coastal and marine areas
and resources. The Haida Nation in northern British
Columbia has been resource owners and managers for thousands of years on Haida Gwaii, where they apply traditional
knowledge and experience to fisheries management. Their
approach is based on Haida ethics, principles or values of
respect, balance, interconnectedness, seeking wise council,
and responsibility. They demonstrate a commitment to
responsible and respectful management of marine resources
and ecosystems. Plans for the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNVIMA) are being led by the
Council of the Haida Nation, under the Haida constitution
in an example of local community-based and
co-governance. The lead agency is Fisheries and Oceans
Canada and their approach is for collaborative management
with Aboriginal peoples, a change from the previous
regime where government policies tended to displace first
nations from marine resources (Jones et al., 2010). This initiative was launched in March 2009 and is ongoing,
strengthened by court decisions and policies relating to
Aboriginal rights and title. This approach has resulted in
the establishment of a network of marine-protected areas
with levels of protection influenced by first nations and
marine resource management that includes principles of
social equity and ecosystem justice.
Conclusions
There is overwhelming support for including traditional
knowledge in resource management of estuarine and
coastal marine areas and an increasing number of examples where this has been shown to benefit all users. Worldwide, the extent of local or traditional knowledge is
patchy; some has been lost and in some countries local
fisheries knowledge may be largely exclusive to women
(Ruddle and Hickey, 2008). There is therefore an urgent
need to systematically collect as well as archive cultural,
historic, and contemporary information. These different
sources of information can then be combined using
geo-spatial information systems as suggested by De
Freitas et al. (2009). Their multilayer GIS database for
CULTURAL SEAFOOD MANAGEMENT
167