Zu Ermgassen, P. S. E., Spalding, M. D., Banks, P., Blake, B., Coen,
L., Dumbauld, B., Geiger, S., Grabowski, J. H., Grizzle, R.,
Luckenbach, M., McGraw, K., Rodney, B., Ruesink, J., Powers,
S., and Brumbaugh, R., 2012. Historical ecology with real numbers: past and present extent and biomass of an imperilled estuarine ecosystem. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
279(1742), 3393–3400.
Zu Ermgassen, P. S. E., Spalding, M. D., Grizzle, R., and
Brumbaugh, R., 2013a. Quantifying the loss of a marine ecosystem service: filtration by the eastern oyster in US estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts, 36, 36–43.
Zu Ermgassen, P. S. E., Gray, M. W., Langdon, C. J., Spalding,
M. D., and Brumbaugh, R., 2013b. Quantifying the historic contribution of Olympia oysters to filtration in Pacific coast (USA)
estuaries and the implications for restoration objectives. Aquatic
Ecology, 47, 149–161.
Cross-references
Bivalve Aquaculture
Coastal Erosion Control
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Habitat Loss
Intertidal Zonation
Introduced Species
Invasive Species
Oyster Reef
Predator–Prey Relationships
Salt Marsh Accretion
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Wetlands
Shell Beds
Shellfish Production
Shore Protection
Shoreline Changes
Thermal Biology
BLUE CARBON
Judith Z. Drexler
U.S. Geological Survey, California Water Science Center,
Sacramento, CA, USA
Synonyms
Coastal carbon; Vegetated coastal carbon sinks
Definition
The term “blue carbon” refers to the proportion of “green”
or biological carbon that is found in the oceans of the
world (Nelleman et al., 2009). Three main types of coastal
ecosystems contain the majority of this blue carbon. Mangroves are a type of tidal, forested wetland found in the
tropics and subtropics. Tidal marshes are tidal wetlands
dominated by emergent vegetation including grasses,
sedges, and reeds. Seagrass beds or meadows are ecosystems along the coasts from the arctic to the tropics
containing submerged aquatic vegetation, which resembles terrestrial grasslands. Because these three types
of ecosystems store the majority of this carbon, “blue
carbon” has become synonymous with coastal carbon.
Altogether, mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrass beds
cover roughly 49 million hectares in area (Pendleton
et al., 2012) and account for the burial of approximately
114–131 Tg (1 Tg ¼ 1 Â 10
12 g) C/year (Nelleman et al.,
2009). Within these ecosystems, the majority of the blue
carbon is stored in soils and sediments; however, in mangrove ecosystems and tidal freshwater swamps, a good
proportion of carbon may also be stored in trees.
Bibliography
Nelleman, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., Valdes, L., De Young,
C., Fonseca, L., and Grimditch, G. (eds.), 2009. Blue Carbon.
A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment
Programme, BRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no.
Pendleton, L., Donato, D. C., Murray, B. C., Crooks, S., Jenkins, W. A.,
Sifleet, S., Craft, C., Fourqurean, J. W., Kauffman, J. B.,
Marba, N., Megonigal, P., Pidgeon, E., Herr, D., Gordon, D., and
Baldera, A., 2012. Estimating global “Blue Carbon” emissions from
conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems.
PLoS ONE, 7(9), e43542. www.plosone.org.
Cross-references
Carbon Sequestration
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
BLUE CRABS
Paul R. Jivoff
Department of Biology, Rider University, Lawrenceville,
NJ, USA
Synonyms
Atlantic blue crabs; Blue claw crabs
Definition
Blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, are an ecologically and
economically important crustacean species in estuaries
along the east coast of the United States. Their entire
range is from Massachusetts to Argentina (Millikin and
Williams, 1980).
Summary
Blue crabs are considered estuarine residents with all life
history stages, except for the larval stages, occurring in
estuarine waters. Adult females release larvae into the
water column near the mouths of estuaries (Millikin and
Williams, 1980). Larvae are carried offshore where at least
30 days are required to go through seven zoeal stages
(Millikin and Williams, 1980; Epifanio, 2007). As
a result, blue crab larvae represent one trophic link
between estuarine and oceanic food webs. The final planktonic stage (megalopa) returns to the estuary, via winddriven currents and tides (Epifanio, 2007), where they
metamorphose to form the first juvenile stage (<5 mm
carapace width) and become benthic. These juveniles
BLUE CRABS
109
L., Dumbauld, B., Geiger, S., Grabowski, J. H., Grizzle, R.,
Luckenbach, M., McGraw, K., Rodney, B., Ruesink, J., Powers,
S., and Brumbaugh, R., 2012. Historical ecology with real numbers: past and present extent and biomass of an imperilled estuarine ecosystem. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
279(1742), 3393–3400.
Zu Ermgassen, P. S. E., Spalding, M. D., Grizzle, R., and
Brumbaugh, R., 2013a. Quantifying the loss of a marine ecosystem service: filtration by the eastern oyster in US estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts, 36, 36–43.
Zu Ermgassen, P. S. E., Gray, M. W., Langdon, C. J., Spalding,
M. D., and Brumbaugh, R., 2013b. Quantifying the historic contribution of Olympia oysters to filtration in Pacific coast (USA)
estuaries and the implications for restoration objectives. Aquatic
Ecology, 47, 149–161.
Cross-references
Bivalve Aquaculture
Coastal Erosion Control
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Habitat Loss
Intertidal Zonation
Introduced Species
Invasive Species
Oyster Reef
Predator–Prey Relationships
Salt Marsh Accretion
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Wetlands
Shell Beds
Shellfish Production
Shore Protection
Shoreline Changes
Thermal Biology
BLUE CARBON
Judith Z. Drexler
U.S. Geological Survey, California Water Science Center,
Sacramento, CA, USA
Synonyms
Coastal carbon; Vegetated coastal carbon sinks
Definition
The term “blue carbon” refers to the proportion of “green”
or biological carbon that is found in the oceans of the
world (Nelleman et al., 2009). Three main types of coastal
ecosystems contain the majority of this blue carbon. Mangroves are a type of tidal, forested wetland found in the
tropics and subtropics. Tidal marshes are tidal wetlands
dominated by emergent vegetation including grasses,
sedges, and reeds. Seagrass beds or meadows are ecosystems along the coasts from the arctic to the tropics
containing submerged aquatic vegetation, which resembles terrestrial grasslands. Because these three types
of ecosystems store the majority of this carbon, “blue
carbon” has become synonymous with coastal carbon.
Altogether, mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrass beds
cover roughly 49 million hectares in area (Pendleton
et al., 2012) and account for the burial of approximately
114–131 Tg (1 Tg ¼ 1 Â 10
12 g) C/year (Nelleman et al.,
2009). Within these ecosystems, the majority of the blue
carbon is stored in soils and sediments; however, in mangrove ecosystems and tidal freshwater swamps, a good
proportion of carbon may also be stored in trees.
Bibliography
Nelleman, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., Valdes, L., De Young,
C., Fonseca, L., and Grimditch, G. (eds.), 2009. Blue Carbon.
A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment
Programme, BRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no.
Pendleton, L., Donato, D. C., Murray, B. C., Crooks, S., Jenkins, W. A.,
Sifleet, S., Craft, C., Fourqurean, J. W., Kauffman, J. B.,
Marba, N., Megonigal, P., Pidgeon, E., Herr, D., Gordon, D., and
Baldera, A., 2012. Estimating global “Blue Carbon” emissions from
conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems.
PLoS ONE, 7(9), e43542. www.plosone.org.
Cross-references
Carbon Sequestration
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
BLUE CRABS
Paul R. Jivoff
Department of Biology, Rider University, Lawrenceville,
NJ, USA
Synonyms
Atlantic blue crabs; Blue claw crabs
Definition
Blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, are an ecologically and
economically important crustacean species in estuaries
along the east coast of the United States. Their entire
range is from Massachusetts to Argentina (Millikin and
Williams, 1980).
Summary
Blue crabs are considered estuarine residents with all life
history stages, except for the larval stages, occurring in
estuarine waters. Adult females release larvae into the
water column near the mouths of estuaries (Millikin and
Williams, 1980). Larvae are carried offshore where at least
30 days are required to go through seven zoeal stages
(Millikin and Williams, 1980; Epifanio, 2007). As
a result, blue crab larvae represent one trophic link
between estuarine and oceanic food webs. The final planktonic stage (megalopa) returns to the estuary, via winddriven currents and tides (Epifanio, 2007), where they
metamorphose to form the first juvenile stage (<5 mm
carapace width) and become benthic. These juveniles
BLUE CRABS
109