16
in surface water, at times exceeding the acceptable limit of 10 mcg/l (Childers et al.
2002; Gaiser et al. 2005; Payne et al. 2000). Improved drainage in the region during
the turn of the twentieth century permitted a large tract of wetland (2830 km
2
)
immediately south of Lake Okeechobee, now referred to as the Everglades
Agricultural Area (EAA), to be developed for agriculture. EAA runoff flows directly
into the Everglades and carries elevated levels of nutrients and other constituents
(e.g., total suspended solids, BOD, pesticides, bacteria) and causes decreased levels
of dissolved oxygen, increased sedimentation, and food chain disruptions (Chimney
and Goforth 2001; Payne et al. 2000; Snyder and Davidson 1994). Pollutant loads
associated with stormwater runoff can be exceptionally high, with heavy phosphorous concentrations causing eutrophication in many areas (Gaiser 2009). This, in
return, allows for the proliferation of species that disrupt the balance of the ecosystem, such as harmful algal blooms (Gaiser et al. 2005). Additionally, the chemicals
in various agricultural fertilizers can lead to accumulations of toxic mercury in fish,
birds, reptiles, and even mammals, including the endangered Florida panther (Doren
et al. 2009a, b; Evans and Crumley 2005).
These changes in water quality and other environmental disturbances associated
with agricultural development in the Everglades were first identified as early as
1938 (Snyder and Davidson 1994). Overall, alterations to the nutrient input of the
Everglades have resulted in widespread changes to the ecology of the ecosystem,
with dramatic declines in the size of wading bird populations (Frederick and Collopy
1989; Ogden 1994) and the invasion of species that include the cattail (Typha sp.)
and duckweed into native sawgrass and slough habitats (Doren et al. 2009a, b; Miao
and Sklar 1998; Newman et al. 1996; Rader and Richardson 1994). Any viable solution to improve conditions in the Everglades needs to reduce phosphorous concentrations from EAA runoff and improve the region’s hydroperiod and hydropattern
(Gwin et al. 1999; Payne et al. 2000). The South Florida Water Management
District’s long-term strategy for preserving and restoring the Everglades is intended
to meet these needs by allocating approximately 167 km
2
of wetlands, referred to as
Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs), to treat runoff from the EAA and adjacent
drainage basins in an effort to reduce devastating nutrient loading into the system
(Guardo et al. 1995; Walker 1995).
1.2.3 Flora and Fauna
Even though the Everglades are situated in a semi-tropical climate, yearly variation
between wet and dry seasons, as well as fluctuations in summer high temperatures
(e.g., ~36 °C) and winter low temperatures (e.g., ~0 °C), has selected specific flora
and fanua species that can tolerate such extremes (Gunderson and Loftus 1993). At
first glance, one will observe that it is a region without many trees, rather the
Everglades are dominated by grasses, sedges, reeds, rushes, and other herbs that
take root in horizons of peat, marl, and even sandy soils that are nearly flooded or
wet most of the year (Finkl and Restrepo-Coupe 2007; Gleason 1984; Lodge 1994).
C.W. Finkl and C. Makowski
in surface water, at times exceeding the acceptable limit of 10 mcg/l (Childers et al.
2002; Gaiser et al. 2005; Payne et al. 2000). Improved drainage in the region during
the turn of the twentieth century permitted a large tract of wetland (2830 km
2
)
immediately south of Lake Okeechobee, now referred to as the Everglades
Agricultural Area (EAA), to be developed for agriculture. EAA runoff flows directly
into the Everglades and carries elevated levels of nutrients and other constituents
(e.g., total suspended solids, BOD, pesticides, bacteria) and causes decreased levels
of dissolved oxygen, increased sedimentation, and food chain disruptions (Chimney
and Goforth 2001; Payne et al. 2000; Snyder and Davidson 1994). Pollutant loads
associated with stormwater runoff can be exceptionally high, with heavy phosphorous concentrations causing eutrophication in many areas (Gaiser 2009). This, in
return, allows for the proliferation of species that disrupt the balance of the ecosystem, such as harmful algal blooms (Gaiser et al. 2005). Additionally, the chemicals
in various agricultural fertilizers can lead to accumulations of toxic mercury in fish,
birds, reptiles, and even mammals, including the endangered Florida panther (Doren
et al. 2009a, b; Evans and Crumley 2005).
These changes in water quality and other environmental disturbances associated
with agricultural development in the Everglades were first identified as early as
1938 (Snyder and Davidson 1994). Overall, alterations to the nutrient input of the
Everglades have resulted in widespread changes to the ecology of the ecosystem,
with dramatic declines in the size of wading bird populations (Frederick and Collopy
1989; Ogden 1994) and the invasion of species that include the cattail (Typha sp.)
and duckweed into native sawgrass and slough habitats (Doren et al. 2009a, b; Miao
and Sklar 1998; Newman et al. 1996; Rader and Richardson 1994). Any viable solution to improve conditions in the Everglades needs to reduce phosphorous concentrations from EAA runoff and improve the region’s hydroperiod and hydropattern
(Gwin et al. 1999; Payne et al. 2000). The South Florida Water Management
District’s long-term strategy for preserving and restoring the Everglades is intended
to meet these needs by allocating approximately 167 km
2
of wetlands, referred to as
Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs), to treat runoff from the EAA and adjacent
drainage basins in an effort to reduce devastating nutrient loading into the system
(Guardo et al. 1995; Walker 1995).
1.2.3 Flora and Fauna
Even though the Everglades are situated in a semi-tropical climate, yearly variation
between wet and dry seasons, as well as fluctuations in summer high temperatures
(e.g., ~36 °C) and winter low temperatures (e.g., ~0 °C), has selected specific flora
and fanua species that can tolerate such extremes (Gunderson and Loftus 1993). At
first glance, one will observe that it is a region without many trees, rather the
Everglades are dominated by grasses, sedges, reeds, rushes, and other herbs that
take root in horizons of peat, marl, and even sandy soils that are nearly flooded or
wet most of the year (Finkl and Restrepo-Coupe 2007; Gleason 1984; Lodge 1994).
C.W. Finkl and C. Makowski