366
If blue carbon credit schemes are to be applied to the concept as shown in
Fig. 13.4, baseline measurements, time series data for target areas, and time series
data for carbon storage capacity and/or CO 2 uptake per area are essential. The baseline refers to the amount of carbon stock and/or CO 2 uptake at the control site or
period in which conservation and restoration activities are not carried out. It is necessary to estimate how much the carbon stock and/or CO 2 uptake increases by conserving and restoring the target area. In fact, baseline is usually obtained based on
the spatiotemporal trends before the onset of the projects. However, objectively
setting the trends and/or control sites for the baseline is scientifically and technically challenging.
13.5.4 Guidelines for Measurement Methods
Various guidelines for measuring carbon storage and CO 2 uptake by blue carbon
ecosystems have been developed. Australia has included blue carbon ecosystems in
its national greenhouse gas accounts, and the guidelines of the Australian
Government’s Emissions Reduction Fund are comprehensive (Kelleway et al.
2017). Other guidelines include those of the IPCC (2014); Conservation
International; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (Howard et al. 2014); UNEP and
the Center for International Forestry Research (Crooks et al. 2014); and the Verified
Carbon Standard (2015), which is an independent carbon trading certification body
in the United States. In Japan, guidance for measurement methods in seagrass
meadows, tidal flats, embayments, and port facilities have been prepared (Tokoro
et al. 2015). Thus, the movement toward the creation of credits for blue carbon is
beginning to take place.
13.6 Blue Carbon As a Climate Change Adaptation
13.6.1 Coastal Defense Using Green Infrastructure
Coastal facilities made of concrete during the global economic growth period are
becoming degraded and require renewal. If climate change accelerates aging and
damage of these facilities, the need for renewal may be advanced. In addition, if we
anticipate the stagnation of economic growth and tightening of public financing in
the future, it is unlikely that the renewal and maintenance of coastal facilities will be
covered by public financial resources as before.
To maintain coastal facilities and consequent socioeconomic sustainability,
attention has been paid to coastal defense using not only artificial capital, so-called
gray infrastructure, but also natural capital, or green infrastructure (Temmerman
et al. 2013). Disaster prevention using green infrastructure is also called Eco-DRR
T. Kuwae and M. Hori
If blue carbon credit schemes are to be applied to the concept as shown in
Fig. 13.4, baseline measurements, time series data for target areas, and time series
data for carbon storage capacity and/or CO 2 uptake per area are essential. The baseline refers to the amount of carbon stock and/or CO 2 uptake at the control site or
period in which conservation and restoration activities are not carried out. It is necessary to estimate how much the carbon stock and/or CO 2 uptake increases by conserving and restoring the target area. In fact, baseline is usually obtained based on
the spatiotemporal trends before the onset of the projects. However, objectively
setting the trends and/or control sites for the baseline is scientifically and technically challenging.
13.5.4 Guidelines for Measurement Methods
Various guidelines for measuring carbon storage and CO 2 uptake by blue carbon
ecosystems have been developed. Australia has included blue carbon ecosystems in
its national greenhouse gas accounts, and the guidelines of the Australian
Government’s Emissions Reduction Fund are comprehensive (Kelleway et al.
2017). Other guidelines include those of the IPCC (2014); Conservation
International; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (Howard et al. 2014); UNEP and
the Center for International Forestry Research (Crooks et al. 2014); and the Verified
Carbon Standard (2015), which is an independent carbon trading certification body
in the United States. In Japan, guidance for measurement methods in seagrass
meadows, tidal flats, embayments, and port facilities have been prepared (Tokoro
et al. 2015). Thus, the movement toward the creation of credits for blue carbon is
beginning to take place.
13.6 Blue Carbon As a Climate Change Adaptation
13.6.1 Coastal Defense Using Green Infrastructure
Coastal facilities made of concrete during the global economic growth period are
becoming degraded and require renewal. If climate change accelerates aging and
damage of these facilities, the need for renewal may be advanced. In addition, if we
anticipate the stagnation of economic growth and tightening of public financing in
the future, it is unlikely that the renewal and maintenance of coastal facilities will be
covered by public financial resources as before.
To maintain coastal facilities and consequent socioeconomic sustainability,
attention has been paid to coastal defense using not only artificial capital, so-called
gray infrastructure, but also natural capital, or green infrastructure (Temmerman
et al. 2013). Disaster prevention using green infrastructure is also called Eco-DRR
T. Kuwae and M. Hori