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activities. The conservation and utilization of blue carbon have led to comprehensive ecosystem management including other ecosystem services. As explained in
detail in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.3), the ecosystem functioning of SCEs is generated by
their foundation species, which support the base of the ecosystem and establish the
biological and physicochemical characteristics of the ecosystem. In many cases, the
foundation species and whole ecosystem that drives their functioning are regarded
as a target of conservation and management. Having awareness of how the initiatives will be positioned in the international community and how they can connect to
local policies and implementations should be the first step to integrating local initiatives with the global restoration, conservation, and utilization of blue carbon.
Other relevant policy frameworks and case studies are available elsewhere (e.g.,
Laffoley and Grimsditch 2009; Crooks et al. 2011; Lutz et al. 2014; Wylie et al.
2016; EX-ACT 2017; Howard et al. 2017b; International Partnership for Blue
Carbon 2017; Villa and Bernal 2018; Wyndham-Meyers et al. 2018).
13.5 Remaining Issues and Future Efforts
13.5.1 Comparison of Mitigation Technologies
There are two types of technologies for the development of carbon sinks.
Engineering-based technologies include carbon capture and storage (i.e., chemical
industrial recovery of CO 2 emitted from plants, transported to a storage site, and
enclosed) and ocean iron fertilization, whereas ecosystem-based technologies
include forest management and soil management. All the sciences and technologies
related to blue carbon and SCEs introduced in this book are ecosystem-based.
The costs and benefits of engineering- and ecosystem-based mitigation technologies differ. First, ecosystem-based technologies have advantages such as sustainability and small barriers to implementation. Engineering-based technologies such
as carbon capture and storage, algae biofuel plants, and ocean iron fertilization have
disadvantages such as high cost, CO 2 emission during the manufacturing and transportation process, and adverse environmental effects and thus have issues to be
solved before sustainable implementation can be achieved (Cusack et al. 2014).
Second, unlike engineering-based technologies, ecosystem-based technologies not
only help to mitigate climate change but also provide co-benefits from other ecosystem services, such as food provision, water purification, recreation, and disaster
prevention. Finally, because ecosystem-based technologies use natural processes,
there are disadvantages such as higher uncertainty and lower efficiency (e.g., slower
CO 2 uptake from the atmosphere) than engineering-based technologies.
Therefore, when introducing carbon sink technology utilizing blue carbon, it is
necessary to keep in mind that there are few barriers to implementation and cobenefits are obtained, but CO 2 absorption occurs with relatively low efficiency.
T. Kuwae and M. Hori
activities. The conservation and utilization of blue carbon have led to comprehensive ecosystem management including other ecosystem services. As explained in
detail in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.3), the ecosystem functioning of SCEs is generated by
their foundation species, which support the base of the ecosystem and establish the
biological and physicochemical characteristics of the ecosystem. In many cases, the
foundation species and whole ecosystem that drives their functioning are regarded
as a target of conservation and management. Having awareness of how the initiatives will be positioned in the international community and how they can connect to
local policies and implementations should be the first step to integrating local initiatives with the global restoration, conservation, and utilization of blue carbon.
Other relevant policy frameworks and case studies are available elsewhere (e.g.,
Laffoley and Grimsditch 2009; Crooks et al. 2011; Lutz et al. 2014; Wylie et al.
2016; EX-ACT 2017; Howard et al. 2017b; International Partnership for Blue
Carbon 2017; Villa and Bernal 2018; Wyndham-Meyers et al. 2018).
13.5 Remaining Issues and Future Efforts
13.5.1 Comparison of Mitigation Technologies
There are two types of technologies for the development of carbon sinks.
Engineering-based technologies include carbon capture and storage (i.e., chemical
industrial recovery of CO 2 emitted from plants, transported to a storage site, and
enclosed) and ocean iron fertilization, whereas ecosystem-based technologies
include forest management and soil management. All the sciences and technologies
related to blue carbon and SCEs introduced in this book are ecosystem-based.
The costs and benefits of engineering- and ecosystem-based mitigation technologies differ. First, ecosystem-based technologies have advantages such as sustainability and small barriers to implementation. Engineering-based technologies such
as carbon capture and storage, algae biofuel plants, and ocean iron fertilization have
disadvantages such as high cost, CO 2 emission during the manufacturing and transportation process, and adverse environmental effects and thus have issues to be
solved before sustainable implementation can be achieved (Cusack et al. 2014).
Second, unlike engineering-based technologies, ecosystem-based technologies not
only help to mitigate climate change but also provide co-benefits from other ecosystem services, such as food provision, water purification, recreation, and disaster
prevention. Finally, because ecosystem-based technologies use natural processes,
there are disadvantages such as higher uncertainty and lower efficiency (e.g., slower
CO 2 uptake from the atmosphere) than engineering-based technologies.
Therefore, when introducing carbon sink technology utilizing blue carbon, it is
necessary to keep in mind that there are few barriers to implementation and cobenefits are obtained, but CO 2 absorption occurs with relatively low efficiency.
T. Kuwae and M. Hori