20. Biotic Manipulations of Aquatic Ecosystems
Although the notion of using management activity
as a learning exercise to improve future policies has
been explicit since the 1970s, experience has been
spotty and adaptive ecosystem management remains an important frontier of ecosystem science
(Gunderson et al. 1995).
Many of the methods commonly used in biotic
manipulations of aquatic ecosystems have not
changed much in the past several decades. The current popularity of stable isotope tracers in ecological experiments is one example of a technique that
has recently become more accessible to experimental ecologists. New techniques will certainly have
important roles in future ecosystem experiments
that involve biotic manipulations. However, we
think that the development of interesting and relevant ecosystem experiments in the future will not
be constrained by methodology. Instead, the development oflarge-scale experiments that span the scientific disciplines relevant to management, include
human dimensions, and probe the functional importance of certain species to ecosystem functioning are the key to success of future ecosystem
experiments.
Acknowledgments We thank Marty Berg for information about experiments in streams, and the National Sciences Foundation and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources for support. Sture
Hansson, Dick Lathrop and David Lewis provided
helpful reviews of the manuscript.
References
Anderson, R.S. Effects of rotenone on zooplankton communities and study of their recovery patterns in two
mountain lakes in Alberta. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
27:1335-1356; 1970.
Bender, E.A.; Case, TJ.; Gilpin, M.E. Perturbation experiments in community ecology: Theory and practice. Ecology 65:1-13; 1984.
Benndorf, l; Schultz, H.; Benndorf, A.; Unger, R.; Penz,
E.; Kneschke, H.; Kossatz, K.; Dumke, R.; Horning,
U.; Kruspe, R.; Reichel, S. Food-web manipulation by
enhancement of piscivorous fish stocks: Long-term effects in the hypertrophic Bautzen Reservoir. Lirnnologica (Berlin) 19:97-110; 1988.
Brabrand, A.; Faafeng, B. Habitat shift in roach (Rutilus
rutilus) induced by pikeperch (Stizostedion luciop315
erca) introduction: Predation risk versus pelagic behavior. Oecologia 95:38-46; 1993.
Brinson, M.M.; Rheinnhardt, R. The role of reference
wetlands in functional assessment and mitigation.
Ecol. Applic. 6:69-76; 1996.
Bystrilm, P.; Persson, L.; Wahlstrilm, E. Competing predators and prey: Juvenile bottlenecks in whole-lake experiments. Ecology 79:2153-2167; 1998.
Capelli, G.M. Displacement of northern Wisconsin crayfish by Orconectes rusticus (Girard). Lirnnol. Oceanogr. 27:741-745; 1982.
Carpenter, S.R. Replication and treatment strength in
whole-lake experiments. Ecology 70:453-463; 1989.
Carpenter, S.R.; Chisholm, S.w.; Krebs, CJ.; Schindler,
D.W.; Wright, R.E Ecosystem experiments. Science
269:324-327; 1995a.
Carpenter, S.R.; Cunningham, P.; Gafny, S.; Munoz del
Rio, A.; Nibbelink, N.; Pellett, T.; Storlie, C.; Trebitz,
A.; Wilson, K. Responses of bluegill to habitat manipulations: Power to detect effects. N. Am. J. Fish.
Manage. 15:519-527; 1995b.
Carpenter, S.R.; Frost, T.M.; Heisey, D.; Kratz, T.K. Randomized intervention analysis and the interpretation
of whole ecosystem experiments. Ecology 70:11421152; 1989.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, lE, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. London: Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993a.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, J.E Simulation models of the
trophic cascade: Predictions and evaluations. In: Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, lE, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. London: Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993b.
Carpenter, S.R.; Olson, M.; Cunningham, P.; Gafny, S.;
Nibbelink, N.; Pellett, T.; Storlie, c.; Trebitz, A.; Wilson, K. Macrophyte structure and growth of bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus): Design of a multi-lake experiment. In: Jeppeson, E.; Christoffersen, K.; S¢ndergaard, M., eds. The Role of Submerged Macrophytes
in Structuring Lakes. New York: Springer-Verlag;
1997.
Cooke, G.D.; Welch, E.B.; Peterson, S.A.; Newroth, P.R.
Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC; 1993.
Christensen, D.L.; Herwig, B.R.; Schindler, D.E.; Carpenter, S.R. Impacts of lakeshore residential development on coarse woody debris in north temperate
lakes. Ecol. Applic. 6:1143-1149; 1996.
Cushing, C.E.; Olive, lR. Effects of toxaphene and rotenone upon the macroscopic bottom fauna of two
northern Colorado reservoirs. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
86:294-301; 1957.
Downing, lA.; Rigler, EH., eds. A Manual on Methods
for the Assessment of Secondary Productivity in Fresh
Waters. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell; 1984.
Galatowitsch, S.M.; van der Valk, A.G. The vegetation
of restored and prairie wetlands. Ecol. Applic. 6: 102112; 1996.
Although the notion of using management activity
as a learning exercise to improve future policies has
been explicit since the 1970s, experience has been
spotty and adaptive ecosystem management remains an important frontier of ecosystem science
(Gunderson et al. 1995).
Many of the methods commonly used in biotic
manipulations of aquatic ecosystems have not
changed much in the past several decades. The current popularity of stable isotope tracers in ecological experiments is one example of a technique that
has recently become more accessible to experimental ecologists. New techniques will certainly have
important roles in future ecosystem experiments
that involve biotic manipulations. However, we
think that the development of interesting and relevant ecosystem experiments in the future will not
be constrained by methodology. Instead, the development oflarge-scale experiments that span the scientific disciplines relevant to management, include
human dimensions, and probe the functional importance of certain species to ecosystem functioning are the key to success of future ecosystem
experiments.
Acknowledgments We thank Marty Berg for information about experiments in streams, and the National Sciences Foundation and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources for support. Sture
Hansson, Dick Lathrop and David Lewis provided
helpful reviews of the manuscript.
References
Anderson, R.S. Effects of rotenone on zooplankton communities and study of their recovery patterns in two
mountain lakes in Alberta. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
27:1335-1356; 1970.
Bender, E.A.; Case, TJ.; Gilpin, M.E. Perturbation experiments in community ecology: Theory and practice. Ecology 65:1-13; 1984.
Benndorf, l; Schultz, H.; Benndorf, A.; Unger, R.; Penz,
E.; Kneschke, H.; Kossatz, K.; Dumke, R.; Horning,
U.; Kruspe, R.; Reichel, S. Food-web manipulation by
enhancement of piscivorous fish stocks: Long-term effects in the hypertrophic Bautzen Reservoir. Lirnnologica (Berlin) 19:97-110; 1988.
Brabrand, A.; Faafeng, B. Habitat shift in roach (Rutilus
rutilus) induced by pikeperch (Stizostedion luciop315
erca) introduction: Predation risk versus pelagic behavior. Oecologia 95:38-46; 1993.
Brinson, M.M.; Rheinnhardt, R. The role of reference
wetlands in functional assessment and mitigation.
Ecol. Applic. 6:69-76; 1996.
Bystrilm, P.; Persson, L.; Wahlstrilm, E. Competing predators and prey: Juvenile bottlenecks in whole-lake experiments. Ecology 79:2153-2167; 1998.
Capelli, G.M. Displacement of northern Wisconsin crayfish by Orconectes rusticus (Girard). Lirnnol. Oceanogr. 27:741-745; 1982.
Carpenter, S.R. Replication and treatment strength in
whole-lake experiments. Ecology 70:453-463; 1989.
Carpenter, S.R.; Chisholm, S.w.; Krebs, CJ.; Schindler,
D.W.; Wright, R.E Ecosystem experiments. Science
269:324-327; 1995a.
Carpenter, S.R.; Cunningham, P.; Gafny, S.; Munoz del
Rio, A.; Nibbelink, N.; Pellett, T.; Storlie, C.; Trebitz,
A.; Wilson, K. Responses of bluegill to habitat manipulations: Power to detect effects. N. Am. J. Fish.
Manage. 15:519-527; 1995b.
Carpenter, S.R.; Frost, T.M.; Heisey, D.; Kratz, T.K. Randomized intervention analysis and the interpretation
of whole ecosystem experiments. Ecology 70:11421152; 1989.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, lE, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. London: Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993a.
Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, J.E Simulation models of the
trophic cascade: Predictions and evaluations. In: Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, lE, eds. The Trophic Cascade
in Lakes. London: Cambridge Univ. Pr.; 1993b.
Carpenter, S.R.; Olson, M.; Cunningham, P.; Gafny, S.;
Nibbelink, N.; Pellett, T.; Storlie, c.; Trebitz, A.; Wilson, K. Macrophyte structure and growth of bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus): Design of a multi-lake experiment. In: Jeppeson, E.; Christoffersen, K.; S¢ndergaard, M., eds. The Role of Submerged Macrophytes
in Structuring Lakes. New York: Springer-Verlag;
1997.
Cooke, G.D.; Welch, E.B.; Peterson, S.A.; Newroth, P.R.
Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC; 1993.
Christensen, D.L.; Herwig, B.R.; Schindler, D.E.; Carpenter, S.R. Impacts of lakeshore residential development on coarse woody debris in north temperate
lakes. Ecol. Applic. 6:1143-1149; 1996.
Cushing, C.E.; Olive, lR. Effects of toxaphene and rotenone upon the macroscopic bottom fauna of two
northern Colorado reservoirs. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
86:294-301; 1957.
Downing, lA.; Rigler, EH., eds. A Manual on Methods
for the Assessment of Secondary Productivity in Fresh
Waters. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell; 1984.
Galatowitsch, S.M.; van der Valk, A.G. The vegetation
of restored and prairie wetlands. Ecol. Applic. 6: 102112; 1996.