345
Polynesia (15,000 km
2
), but second for its
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 11 million
km
2
, after the United States.
More than a third of marine species in the
world live in coral reefs, about 95,000 species,
and there are 32 of the 34 phyla that exist on our
planet (Reaka-Kudla 1997 ; Spalding et al. 2001 ;
Bouchet 2006 ). If vertebrates are relatively few,
some invertebrate groups have tens of thousands
of species such as molluscs and crustaceans. It is
in the ‘Coral Triangle’ (Indonesia, the Philippines,
Solomon) that the maximum species richness is
found.
3
Services Provided by Coral
Reefs to Mankind
Once human populations are located on coral
coasts, they will develop close links with their
coral reef inhabitants and their habitats whether it
was exploitation of resources or various uses.
This was the case in the Caribbean, as on the
coast of East Africa in the Indian Ocean, in the
Southeast Asia and in the Pacifi c as migration
developed from west to east over the past two
millennia. Cultural ties between these human
populations and the sea are still very much alive
especially in communities where the subsistence
economy is dominant. We are witnessing in cultural demands with the goal of reviving the traditional ways of resource management along with
political claiming on identity which validity is
recognised by the Convention on Biological
Diversity and special agreements on the recognition of Nagoya traditional knowledge and benefi t
sharing (CBD, Nagoya 2010 ).
Beyond these cultural aspects, ecosystem services provided by coral reefs to humanity are
increasingly put forward with their monetary
value for the ecosystem to be considered in what
it brings to the economy.
Reef phenomenon saved oceanic islands of
their disappearance; coral formations growing near
the water surface while the system subside that
affects and has removed the original volcano often
covered by hundred meters of corals accumulated
over millennia (over 2,000 m at Bikini). On some
420 atolls in the world, mainly in the Pacifi c
(84 in French Polynesia alone), well over a hundred are uninhabited and pristine, while other
host populations are living mainly on reef
resources. Several atolls have paid a heavy price
for particular human activities (nuclear testing
sites, Pacifi c war, etc.).
The protection service of the coast by coral
reefs is capital in many oceanic islands and continental coasts (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007 )
where human activities are growing protected
from swell and tempered from the damage during
cyclones and tsunamis (Wilkinson et al. 2006
during the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia and swept
the Indian Ocean).
Fishing is of course the most immediate service to the populations of several million residents in coastal areas with coral reefs
(Whittingham et al. 2003 ; Cinner et al. 2008 ),
especially in low coral islands (Burke et al. 2011 ).
The fi sheries from the lagoon reef environment
are valued at 4 million tonnes, less than 5 % of
global fi sheries, but it is important as subsistence
and for local marketing.
Reefs are also the place of supply of materials
for some traditional buildings as in the Maldives
but also elsewhere for the construction of infrastructure (roads, ports, airports) given the fact
that it is cheaper to dig the fringing reef than to
establish careers ashore. This is a perfect demonstration of the tragedy of the commons (Hardin
1968 ; Wilkinson and Salvat 2012 ).
The development of mass tourism since the
end of World War II participates in the economies
of many tropical countries including small island
states whose resources are limited and whose isolation makes exports less competitive (Salvat and
Paihle 2002 ). The emblematic vision of paradise
reef scenery with sun, coconut, white coral sand
beach and colourful reef fi sh is associated with
water and underwater sports such as diving with
renowned destinations to evolve with sharks. The
Great Barrier Reef receives over 2.7 million visitors each year (Caillaud et al. 2012 ).
Pearl culture, in which several Pacifi c countries have embarked as French Polynesia with a
Health and Degradation of Coral Reefs: Assessment and Future
Polynesia (15,000 km
2
), but second for its
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 11 million
km
2
, after the United States.
More than a third of marine species in the
world live in coral reefs, about 95,000 species,
and there are 32 of the 34 phyla that exist on our
planet (Reaka-Kudla 1997 ; Spalding et al. 2001 ;
Bouchet 2006 ). If vertebrates are relatively few,
some invertebrate groups have tens of thousands
of species such as molluscs and crustaceans. It is
in the ‘Coral Triangle’ (Indonesia, the Philippines,
Solomon) that the maximum species richness is
found.
3
Services Provided by Coral
Reefs to Mankind
Once human populations are located on coral
coasts, they will develop close links with their
coral reef inhabitants and their habitats whether it
was exploitation of resources or various uses.
This was the case in the Caribbean, as on the
coast of East Africa in the Indian Ocean, in the
Southeast Asia and in the Pacifi c as migration
developed from west to east over the past two
millennia. Cultural ties between these human
populations and the sea are still very much alive
especially in communities where the subsistence
economy is dominant. We are witnessing in cultural demands with the goal of reviving the traditional ways of resource management along with
political claiming on identity which validity is
recognised by the Convention on Biological
Diversity and special agreements on the recognition of Nagoya traditional knowledge and benefi t
sharing (CBD, Nagoya 2010 ).
Beyond these cultural aspects, ecosystem services provided by coral reefs to humanity are
increasingly put forward with their monetary
value for the ecosystem to be considered in what
it brings to the economy.
Reef phenomenon saved oceanic islands of
their disappearance; coral formations growing near
the water surface while the system subside that
affects and has removed the original volcano often
covered by hundred meters of corals accumulated
over millennia (over 2,000 m at Bikini). On some
420 atolls in the world, mainly in the Pacifi c
(84 in French Polynesia alone), well over a hundred are uninhabited and pristine, while other
host populations are living mainly on reef
resources. Several atolls have paid a heavy price
for particular human activities (nuclear testing
sites, Pacifi c war, etc.).
The protection service of the coast by coral
reefs is capital in many oceanic islands and continental coasts (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007 )
where human activities are growing protected
from swell and tempered from the damage during
cyclones and tsunamis (Wilkinson et al. 2006
during the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia and swept
the Indian Ocean).
Fishing is of course the most immediate service to the populations of several million residents in coastal areas with coral reefs
(Whittingham et al. 2003 ; Cinner et al. 2008 ),
especially in low coral islands (Burke et al. 2011 ).
The fi sheries from the lagoon reef environment
are valued at 4 million tonnes, less than 5 % of
global fi sheries, but it is important as subsistence
and for local marketing.
Reefs are also the place of supply of materials
for some traditional buildings as in the Maldives
but also elsewhere for the construction of infrastructure (roads, ports, airports) given the fact
that it is cheaper to dig the fringing reef than to
establish careers ashore. This is a perfect demonstration of the tragedy of the commons (Hardin
1968 ; Wilkinson and Salvat 2012 ).
The development of mass tourism since the
end of World War II participates in the economies
of many tropical countries including small island
states whose resources are limited and whose isolation makes exports less competitive (Salvat and
Paihle 2002 ). The emblematic vision of paradise
reef scenery with sun, coconut, white coral sand
beach and colourful reef fi sh is associated with
water and underwater sports such as diving with
renowned destinations to evolve with sharks. The
Great Barrier Reef receives over 2.7 million visitors each year (Caillaud et al. 2012 ).
Pearl culture, in which several Pacifi c countries have embarked as French Polynesia with a
Health and Degradation of Coral Reefs: Assessment and Future