335
• Fourth type (or III)
The purpose of these protected areas is to
allow the protection of specifi c natural structures,
such as a topographic feature, a special coastal
relief, an underwater cave, a unique feature, or
nearby islands with special vegetation. They are
quite small, but visitors attach great importance
to the area. Their existence also protects the habitats of local marine organisms and biodiversity.
• Fifth Type (or IV)
Protected areas in this category are designed
to protect particular species or habitats. They are
managed through regular and active interventions
to meet the requirements of specifi c species or to
maintain habitats.
• Sixth type (or V)
These are areas of particular character, with
signifi cant ecological, biological, cultural, or
landscape features. The protection maintains historical practices and customary management.
• Seventh type (or VI)
These MPAs, large in size, are designed to
preserve ecosystems and natural habitats.
Controlled management of traditional natural
resources is undertaken in which people intervene in a modest and balanced manner to participate in their maintenance.
Japanese authorities have adopted a six-level
classifi cation system that closely resembles the
previous (FAO 2011 ) and that of the National
Agency for Marine Protected Areas, established
in France in 2006 (Anonymous 2012a , b ).
3
Limits of These Defi nitions
This useful classifi cation provides a general
framework when considering the degree of utilization of the natural environment by man.
However, it is rather theoretical and qualitative
because boundaries between different types of
MPAs are not (and cannot) be clearly defi ned.
MPAs usually involve coastal areas. We tend
to think that these areas should be returned to the
condition they were in before exploitation by, and
even the existence of, humankind.
For now, this classifi cation is diffi cult to adapt
to countries, jurisdictions or policies with a very
low environmental culture that largely disregard
the needs of ecology, the evolution of natural
ecosystems, or their operation, let alone this
classifi cation.
Previously, only a portion of those that have
been classifi ed into one category or another have
been correctly classifi ed. Designation often relied
on geographical, topographical, or administrative
requirements, such as ‘national park’, ‘sanctuary’, ‘regional park’, ‘prefectural’, ‘county’,
‘Park Blue Coast’, ‘Kushiro National Park
Shitsugen’, ‘National Park Rikuchūkaigan’, etc.
Moreover, other limitations of this classifi cation are clear. It does not integrate protected areas
that are further offshore, which are poorly protected and often exploited by factory ships. It
does not integrate the deep ecosystems that are
slow to recover once disturbed and are often
exploited by destructive trawling.
4
Operation and Effects
of Marine Protected Areas
4.1
Macro-function
At a macro-functional level, MPAs can be considered as areas of protection for particular species, including the production of eggs and larvae,
leading to the protected reconstitution of broodstock for these areas, as well as the export of
juveniles to neighboring areas, where they can
replenish populations, rebalance ecosystems, and
restore fi shery areas. The main interest is to build
networks of MPAs (Anonymous 2008 ) in order to
establish fi shing areas that should, in their turn,
be managed, as they are not inexhaustible.
Marine areas receiving water bodies carrying juveniles born in the MPAs should have the
characteristics necessary to achieve high productivity in terms of nutrients and photosynthesis. It should be evaluated on a regular basis to
ascertain the potential of organic production
areas considered. Examples include fi ne
12-year studies of fi sh populations in the marine
park of Côte Bleue, near Marseille (Le Direach
et al. 2010 ) or the nature reserve of Banyuls
(Lenfant et al. 2012 ).
Limits of the Concepts of Marine Protected Areas: Adaptation of Human Populations…
• Fourth type (or III)
The purpose of these protected areas is to
allow the protection of specifi c natural structures,
such as a topographic feature, a special coastal
relief, an underwater cave, a unique feature, or
nearby islands with special vegetation. They are
quite small, but visitors attach great importance
to the area. Their existence also protects the habitats of local marine organisms and biodiversity.
• Fifth Type (or IV)
Protected areas in this category are designed
to protect particular species or habitats. They are
managed through regular and active interventions
to meet the requirements of specifi c species or to
maintain habitats.
• Sixth type (or V)
These are areas of particular character, with
signifi cant ecological, biological, cultural, or
landscape features. The protection maintains historical practices and customary management.
• Seventh type (or VI)
These MPAs, large in size, are designed to
preserve ecosystems and natural habitats.
Controlled management of traditional natural
resources is undertaken in which people intervene in a modest and balanced manner to participate in their maintenance.
Japanese authorities have adopted a six-level
classifi cation system that closely resembles the
previous (FAO 2011 ) and that of the National
Agency for Marine Protected Areas, established
in France in 2006 (Anonymous 2012a , b ).
3
Limits of These Defi nitions
This useful classifi cation provides a general
framework when considering the degree of utilization of the natural environment by man.
However, it is rather theoretical and qualitative
because boundaries between different types of
MPAs are not (and cannot) be clearly defi ned.
MPAs usually involve coastal areas. We tend
to think that these areas should be returned to the
condition they were in before exploitation by, and
even the existence of, humankind.
For now, this classifi cation is diffi cult to adapt
to countries, jurisdictions or policies with a very
low environmental culture that largely disregard
the needs of ecology, the evolution of natural
ecosystems, or their operation, let alone this
classifi cation.
Previously, only a portion of those that have
been classifi ed into one category or another have
been correctly classifi ed. Designation often relied
on geographical, topographical, or administrative
requirements, such as ‘national park’, ‘sanctuary’, ‘regional park’, ‘prefectural’, ‘county’,
‘Park Blue Coast’, ‘Kushiro National Park
Shitsugen’, ‘National Park Rikuchūkaigan’, etc.
Moreover, other limitations of this classifi cation are clear. It does not integrate protected areas
that are further offshore, which are poorly protected and often exploited by factory ships. It
does not integrate the deep ecosystems that are
slow to recover once disturbed and are often
exploited by destructive trawling.
4
Operation and Effects
of Marine Protected Areas
4.1
Macro-function
At a macro-functional level, MPAs can be considered as areas of protection for particular species, including the production of eggs and larvae,
leading to the protected reconstitution of broodstock for these areas, as well as the export of
juveniles to neighboring areas, where they can
replenish populations, rebalance ecosystems, and
restore fi shery areas. The main interest is to build
networks of MPAs (Anonymous 2008 ) in order to
establish fi shing areas that should, in their turn,
be managed, as they are not inexhaustible.
Marine areas receiving water bodies carrying juveniles born in the MPAs should have the
characteristics necessary to achieve high productivity in terms of nutrients and photosynthesis. It should be evaluated on a regular basis to
ascertain the potential of organic production
areas considered. Examples include fi ne
12-year studies of fi sh populations in the marine
park of Côte Bleue, near Marseille (Le Direach
et al. 2010 ) or the nature reserve of Banyuls
(Lenfant et al. 2012 ).
Limits of the Concepts of Marine Protected Areas: Adaptation of Human Populations…