98
greatest densities of litter accumulation. Debris,
mainly plastic, that reaches the seabed may have
been transported a considerable distance from its
source, only sinking to the ground when weighed
down by fouling. The consequence is an accumulation of plastic debris in bays and canyons rather
than in the open sea (Galgani et al. 2000 ;
Katsanevakis et al. 2007 ).
However, due to large-scale residual ocean
circulation patterns, some accumulation zones in
the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea
have very high debris densities despite being far
from coasts. We poorly know the trends in accumulation of debris at sea, but available data indicate considerable variability. Abundances slightly
decreased in the Gulf of Lion (France) during a
15-year period (1994–2009). However, in some
areas around Greece, the abundance of debris at
depth has increased over a period of 8 years
( Katsanevakis 2008 ). Debris is progressively
fragmented in the marine environment
(Thompson et al. 2004 ) to microparticles.
Concern is about the accumulation of microscopic pieces of plastic (“microplastic”) due to
their high prevalence at sea and the slow rate of
their chemical and biological degradation. This
also includes the spillage of pre-production (resin
pellets) plastics, granules. At most locations, current quantities appear to be relatively low.
However, plastic microparticles have been
reported in quantities exceeding 100,000 items/
km
2 in the North Sea. Similar quantities of debris
have been reported in the northwest Mediterranean
Sea (Collignon et al. 2012 ) where 115,000 items/
km
2 were calculated, giving an extrapolated total
of 250 billion items in the whole basin.
In a number of reports, the Ecological Quality
Objective (EcoQO) for litter in fulmar stomachs
in the OSPAR framework proved able to provide
valuable information on the temporal changes in,
and the spatial distribution of, the abundance of
marine litter, on the differences between trends in
industrial and user plastics, and on the sources of
marine litter (Van Franeker et al. 2011 ). The
EcoQO currently applies to the North Sea but can
be adapted to apply in most areas of the Northeast
Atlantic. Pilot studies for biomonitoring of litter
should also consider other species, especially
marine turtles that are regularly stranded in the
Mediterranean region and which often contain
fatal quantities of ingested litter. Fish, zooplankton species, shellfi sh and seals may be considered
in the future as generally applicable target species for most European seas.
4
Consideration of the Marine
Strategy Framework
Directive
One of the key challenges for EU Member States
in implementing the MSFD is to determine “good
environmental status” because the term has different meanings in the EU marine regions or subregions and is therefore open to interpretation.
More than one indicator will be required to assess
GES in relation to the different compartments of
the marine environment and the different aspects
of litter pollution. Metrics are not yet available
for evaluating some of the biological impacts that
litter may have. In their absence, the thresholds
may be replaced by trends in pressure-related
indicators, such as the amount of litter on the seafl oor or on beaches, to provide proxies for evaluating progress towards GES.
As stated above, “harm” caused by marine litter can be divided into three general categories:
(1) social harm, i.e. loss in aesthetic value and
public health; (2) economic harm, such as the
cost to tourism, damage to vessels (net and ropes
in propellers), fi shing gear and facilities cleaning
costs; and (3) ecological harm, e.g. mortality of,
or sublethal effects on, animals through entanglement in fi shing gears or harm resulting from
ingestion of litter, including the uptake of microparticles. GES is regarded as achieved when
litter and its degradation products present in and
entering EU marine waters (1) do not cause harm
to marine life and habitats, (2) do not pose direct
or indirect risks to human health and (3) do not
lead to negative socio-economic impacts.
Descriptor 10 is particularly related to
human health and to socio-economic interests.
The use of trend indicators as listed in the
Commission Decision (10.1.1; 10.1.2; 10.1.3),
aimed to observe and assess trends in litter
F. Galgani
greatest densities of litter accumulation. Debris,
mainly plastic, that reaches the seabed may have
been transported a considerable distance from its
source, only sinking to the ground when weighed
down by fouling. The consequence is an accumulation of plastic debris in bays and canyons rather
than in the open sea (Galgani et al. 2000 ;
Katsanevakis et al. 2007 ).
However, due to large-scale residual ocean
circulation patterns, some accumulation zones in
the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea
have very high debris densities despite being far
from coasts. We poorly know the trends in accumulation of debris at sea, but available data indicate considerable variability. Abundances slightly
decreased in the Gulf of Lion (France) during a
15-year period (1994–2009). However, in some
areas around Greece, the abundance of debris at
depth has increased over a period of 8 years
( Katsanevakis 2008 ). Debris is progressively
fragmented in the marine environment
(Thompson et al. 2004 ) to microparticles.
Concern is about the accumulation of microscopic pieces of plastic (“microplastic”) due to
their high prevalence at sea and the slow rate of
their chemical and biological degradation. This
also includes the spillage of pre-production (resin
pellets) plastics, granules. At most locations, current quantities appear to be relatively low.
However, plastic microparticles have been
reported in quantities exceeding 100,000 items/
km
2 in the North Sea. Similar quantities of debris
have been reported in the northwest Mediterranean
Sea (Collignon et al. 2012 ) where 115,000 items/
km
2 were calculated, giving an extrapolated total
of 250 billion items in the whole basin.
In a number of reports, the Ecological Quality
Objective (EcoQO) for litter in fulmar stomachs
in the OSPAR framework proved able to provide
valuable information on the temporal changes in,
and the spatial distribution of, the abundance of
marine litter, on the differences between trends in
industrial and user plastics, and on the sources of
marine litter (Van Franeker et al. 2011 ). The
EcoQO currently applies to the North Sea but can
be adapted to apply in most areas of the Northeast
Atlantic. Pilot studies for biomonitoring of litter
should also consider other species, especially
marine turtles that are regularly stranded in the
Mediterranean region and which often contain
fatal quantities of ingested litter. Fish, zooplankton species, shellfi sh and seals may be considered
in the future as generally applicable target species for most European seas.
4
Consideration of the Marine
Strategy Framework
Directive
One of the key challenges for EU Member States
in implementing the MSFD is to determine “good
environmental status” because the term has different meanings in the EU marine regions or subregions and is therefore open to interpretation.
More than one indicator will be required to assess
GES in relation to the different compartments of
the marine environment and the different aspects
of litter pollution. Metrics are not yet available
for evaluating some of the biological impacts that
litter may have. In their absence, the thresholds
may be replaced by trends in pressure-related
indicators, such as the amount of litter on the seafl oor or on beaches, to provide proxies for evaluating progress towards GES.
As stated above, “harm” caused by marine litter can be divided into three general categories:
(1) social harm, i.e. loss in aesthetic value and
public health; (2) economic harm, such as the
cost to tourism, damage to vessels (net and ropes
in propellers), fi shing gear and facilities cleaning
costs; and (3) ecological harm, e.g. mortality of,
or sublethal effects on, animals through entanglement in fi shing gears or harm resulting from
ingestion of litter, including the uptake of microparticles. GES is regarded as achieved when
litter and its degradation products present in and
entering EU marine waters (1) do not cause harm
to marine life and habitats, (2) do not pose direct
or indirect risks to human health and (3) do not
lead to negative socio-economic impacts.
Descriptor 10 is particularly related to
human health and to socio-economic interests.
The use of trend indicators as listed in the
Commission Decision (10.1.1; 10.1.2; 10.1.3),
aimed to observe and assess trends in litter
F. Galgani