96
the monitoring approaches, the possibilities for
identifying the nature (category) of objects vary
between the different environmental compartments. It has been recommended (Galgani et al.
2013 ) that the categories for reporting should be
compatible between different survey types
(beaches, sea surface, sea fl oor) so that outcomes
are comparable. Reporting of marine litter for
source attribution needs still further development as the effi ciency of measures targeting specifi c litter sources requires the distinction of the
nature/categories of litter in the different environmental compartments.
When planning monitoring schemes, consideration should be given to adequate spatial and
temporal scales. Beach-litter surveys, seafl oor
monitoring on continental shelves and socioeconomic studies can be readily applied at a
European scale (Galgani et al. 2010 ), but priority
should be given to the monitoring of marine areas
that are most affected by litter. Methodological
protocols in Europe are currently available for
the assessment of certain types and occurrences
of litter on coastlines (OSPAR 2009 ). These standards should be adjusted to European needs and
harmonized for an extension to other regions.
Pilot projects have also indicated that litter on the
seafl oor could be measured alongside routine
biological trawling surveys (e.g. International
Bottom Trawl Surveys in the OSPAR area,
Mediterranean International Trawl surveys in the
MEDPOL area) and could include an evaluation
of sources.
In the framework of the OSPAR Convention,
amounts of plastics in fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ) stomachs are used to assess temporal trends,
local differences and compliance with a set target
for acceptable pressure in the North Sea (OSPAR
2009 ). Such monitoring could be extended to
other marine regions using region-specifi c indicator species, such as turtles for the Mediterranean
Sea. Further work will have to focus on developing common monitoring protocols, facilitating
the implementation of fi t for purpose monitoring
programmes, evaluating new monitoring tools,
estimating the costs and developing standardized
litter categories.
The evaluation of waste fl ows between the different compartments of the marine environment
is a necessary step and goal for understanding the
mechanisms of transport, fl uxes and potential
impacts. Finally, understanding the transport
mechanisms will help to clarify transformation
and provide a better description of the spatial distribution of marine litter (Fig. 2 ).
The gaps in knowledge are a constraint in
identifying targeted and effective measures to
reduce litter pollution.
51°10N
49°12N
49°12N
1°47E
1°47E
1°17W
51°10N
1°17W
UNITED KINGDOM
UNITED KINGDOM
Rother river
Rother river
1998
2010
somme
river
somme
river
seline
river
seline
river
FRANCE
FRANCE
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.8
2.0
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.8
2.0
Fig. 1 Increase in litter densities in the French/English channel between 1998 and 2010 (numbers of items per hectare)
(After Galgani et al., 5th International Marine Debris Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 2011 )
F. Galgani
the monitoring approaches, the possibilities for
identifying the nature (category) of objects vary
between the different environmental compartments. It has been recommended (Galgani et al.
2013 ) that the categories for reporting should be
compatible between different survey types
(beaches, sea surface, sea fl oor) so that outcomes
are comparable. Reporting of marine litter for
source attribution needs still further development as the effi ciency of measures targeting specifi c litter sources requires the distinction of the
nature/categories of litter in the different environmental compartments.
When planning monitoring schemes, consideration should be given to adequate spatial and
temporal scales. Beach-litter surveys, seafl oor
monitoring on continental shelves and socioeconomic studies can be readily applied at a
European scale (Galgani et al. 2010 ), but priority
should be given to the monitoring of marine areas
that are most affected by litter. Methodological
protocols in Europe are currently available for
the assessment of certain types and occurrences
of litter on coastlines (OSPAR 2009 ). These standards should be adjusted to European needs and
harmonized for an extension to other regions.
Pilot projects have also indicated that litter on the
seafl oor could be measured alongside routine
biological trawling surveys (e.g. International
Bottom Trawl Surveys in the OSPAR area,
Mediterranean International Trawl surveys in the
MEDPOL area) and could include an evaluation
of sources.
In the framework of the OSPAR Convention,
amounts of plastics in fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ) stomachs are used to assess temporal trends,
local differences and compliance with a set target
for acceptable pressure in the North Sea (OSPAR
2009 ). Such monitoring could be extended to
other marine regions using region-specifi c indicator species, such as turtles for the Mediterranean
Sea. Further work will have to focus on developing common monitoring protocols, facilitating
the implementation of fi t for purpose monitoring
programmes, evaluating new monitoring tools,
estimating the costs and developing standardized
litter categories.
The evaluation of waste fl ows between the different compartments of the marine environment
is a necessary step and goal for understanding the
mechanisms of transport, fl uxes and potential
impacts. Finally, understanding the transport
mechanisms will help to clarify transformation
and provide a better description of the spatial distribution of marine litter (Fig. 2 ).
The gaps in knowledge are a constraint in
identifying targeted and effective measures to
reduce litter pollution.
51°10N
49°12N
49°12N
1°47E
1°47E
1°17W
51°10N
1°17W
UNITED KINGDOM
UNITED KINGDOM
Rother river
Rother river
1998
2010
somme
river
somme
river
seline
river
seline
river
FRANCE
FRANCE
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.8
2.0
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.8
2.0
Fig. 1 Increase in litter densities in the French/English channel between 1998 and 2010 (numbers of items per hectare)
(After Galgani et al., 5th International Marine Debris Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 2011 )
F. Galgani