80
4 Institutional Frameworks for the Exchange and Utilization of PGRFA
Longhurst, 1989). Resource-poor farmers unable to pay insurance premiums
against crop failure, utilize inter- and intra-specific crop diversity as the only
option to minimize risk. These farmers constitute over half the world's farmers
and produce 15 - 20% of the world's food (Wood and Lenne, 1993). It is
estimated that somewhere between 500 and 1,400 million people - approximately
somewhere between 270 and 1,000 million in Asia, 160 and 300 million in Africa,
and 40 and 100 million in Latin America - are now dependent on resource-poor
farming systems in marginal environments (Hazell and Garrett, 1996; Chambers,
1987; Wolf, 1987).
There is still a significant amount of countries in which for one staple crop or
the other non-improved varieties constitute at least 75% of the area planted (FAO,
1994). For example, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi and Uganda are still heavily
dependent on traditional varieties for their national food production (FAO, 1996a).
According to the estimates of Wood and Lenne (1993), 60% of global agriculture
depends on the cultivation of traditional varieties. These farmers depend on their
own varieties because of the constraints on resource-poor farming systems in
marginal environments as well as the difficulties in developing varieties for
extreme agro-ecological environments and for existing agricultural practices.
Local varieties reveal a significant comparative advantage for these ecological
marginalized areas and modern plant breeding has failed to offer more profitable
alternatives to farmers' varieties (Ceccarelli, 1993). Regional plant breeding
efforts have tended to favor the commercial and semi-commercial sectors,
representing the main demand for modern varieties, thereby neglecting the
subsistence farmers (FAO, 1996a). Seeds saved by farmers do not necessarily
imply that they are only traditional, farmers' varieties. They may also be derived
from modern varieties, however are mixed up with farmers' varieties and modified
by the farmers over time (Cromwell et aI., 1992).
On the other hand, there are the resource-rich farmers who have access to
markets, e.g., input, product, capital markets. The majority of these farmers are
living in and making use of high potential areas. These farmers significantly
utilize to a part modern varieties and are able to choose between farmers' and
modern varieties, thereby utilizing the most beneficial varieties for their individual
and site-specific objectives (see Chap. 3.3).
In recent years, the production costs for modern varieties may have increased in
some regions or countries because of changes in agricultural policies. By reducing
or withdrawing subsidies for fertilizers or seed of modem varieties, national
policies lead to an increase in the cultivation of traditional crops and varieties. In
Zambia, for instance, the area planted with modem varieties of maize, wheat and
cotton has decreased, whereby the cultivation of traditional crops has increased,
because of the liberalization of the economy since 1991 (FAO, 1996a).
Farmers conserve de facto agrobiodiversity in situ and also contribute to ex situ
conservation by supplying the genetic resources to collectors for genebank
conservation. Public conservators can be identified at a national as well as at an
international level.
What was once a scientific response to the danger of losing plant genetic
resources has meanwhile emerged into an institutional framework, creating
4 Institutional Frameworks for the Exchange and Utilization of PGRFA
Longhurst, 1989). Resource-poor farmers unable to pay insurance premiums
against crop failure, utilize inter- and intra-specific crop diversity as the only
option to minimize risk. These farmers constitute over half the world's farmers
and produce 15 - 20% of the world's food (Wood and Lenne, 1993). It is
estimated that somewhere between 500 and 1,400 million people - approximately
somewhere between 270 and 1,000 million in Asia, 160 and 300 million in Africa,
and 40 and 100 million in Latin America - are now dependent on resource-poor
farming systems in marginal environments (Hazell and Garrett, 1996; Chambers,
1987; Wolf, 1987).
There is still a significant amount of countries in which for one staple crop or
the other non-improved varieties constitute at least 75% of the area planted (FAO,
1994). For example, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi and Uganda are still heavily
dependent on traditional varieties for their national food production (FAO, 1996a).
According to the estimates of Wood and Lenne (1993), 60% of global agriculture
depends on the cultivation of traditional varieties. These farmers depend on their
own varieties because of the constraints on resource-poor farming systems in
marginal environments as well as the difficulties in developing varieties for
extreme agro-ecological environments and for existing agricultural practices.
Local varieties reveal a significant comparative advantage for these ecological
marginalized areas and modern plant breeding has failed to offer more profitable
alternatives to farmers' varieties (Ceccarelli, 1993). Regional plant breeding
efforts have tended to favor the commercial and semi-commercial sectors,
representing the main demand for modern varieties, thereby neglecting the
subsistence farmers (FAO, 1996a). Seeds saved by farmers do not necessarily
imply that they are only traditional, farmers' varieties. They may also be derived
from modern varieties, however are mixed up with farmers' varieties and modified
by the farmers over time (Cromwell et aI., 1992).
On the other hand, there are the resource-rich farmers who have access to
markets, e.g., input, product, capital markets. The majority of these farmers are
living in and making use of high potential areas. These farmers significantly
utilize to a part modern varieties and are able to choose between farmers' and
modern varieties, thereby utilizing the most beneficial varieties for their individual
and site-specific objectives (see Chap. 3.3).
In recent years, the production costs for modern varieties may have increased in
some regions or countries because of changes in agricultural policies. By reducing
or withdrawing subsidies for fertilizers or seed of modem varieties, national
policies lead to an increase in the cultivation of traditional crops and varieties. In
Zambia, for instance, the area planted with modem varieties of maize, wheat and
cotton has decreased, whereby the cultivation of traditional crops has increased,
because of the liberalization of the economy since 1991 (FAO, 1996a).
Farmers conserve de facto agrobiodiversity in situ and also contribute to ex situ
conservation by supplying the genetic resources to collectors for genebank
conservation. Public conservators can be identified at a national as well as at an
international level.
What was once a scientific response to the danger of losing plant genetic
resources has meanwhile emerged into an institutional framework, creating