70
K. M. G. Mostofa et al.
et al. 2011; Yu et al. 2011; Daughton and Ternes 1999; Keith et al. 2001; Heberer
2002; Balmer et al. 2004; Brooks et al. 2005; Duedahl-Olesen et al. 2005).
It is estimated that approximately 3000 different substances are used as pharmaceutical ingredients, including painkillers, antibiotics, antidiabetics, betablockers, contraceptives, lipid regulators, antidepressants and impotence drugs
(Richardson and Ternes 2011). Pharmaceuticals that arise concern for possible
chronic toxicity are salicylic acid, diclofenac, propranolol, clofibric acid, carbamazepine, atenolol, bezafibrate, cyclophosphamide, ciprofloxacin, furosemide,
hydrochlorothiazide, ibuprofen, lincomycin, ofloxacin, ranitidine, salbutamol,
sulfamethoxazole, diltiazem, acetaminophen, chloramphenicol, florfenicol, thiamphenicol and fluoxetine (Pal et al. 2010; Richardson and Ternes 2011; Hoeger
et al. 2005; Carlsson et al. 2006; Pomati et al. 2006; Kim et al. 2007; Lai et al. 2009).
Occurences of various hormones in natural waters as priority drinking water contaminants are estriol [E3], estrone, progesterone, 17α-ethinylestradiol [EE2], 17α-estradiol,
17β-estradiol [E2], testosterone, androstenedione, equilenin, equilin, mestranol,
and norethindrone (Pal et al. 2010; Richardson and Ternes 2011). Synthetic musk
compounds have diverse chemical structures, such as nitroaromatic groups including musk xylene (1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene) and musk ketone
(4-tert-butyl-2,6-dimethyl-3,5-dinitroacetophenone); polycyclic structures including
7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN; trade name,
tonalide), 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-(g)-2-benzopyran
(HHCB; trade name, galaxolide), 4-acetyl-6-tert-butyl-1,1-dimethylindan (ADBI; trade
name, celestolide), dihydropentamethylindanone (DPMI; trade name, cashmeran), and
5-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,6-hexamethylindan (AHMI, trade name phantolide). They are studied in waters, waste sludge and air (Richardson and Ternes 2011; Gomez et al. 2009;
Wombacher and Hornbuckle 2009; Clara et al. 2011; Ramirez et al. 2011). It has been
shown that galaxolide is the most abundant musk detected in wastewater, reaching up to
2069 and 1432 ng L −1 in influents and effluents, respectively.
Siloxanes include cyclic siloxanes, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6), tetradecamethylcycloheptasiloxane (D7) and linear siloxanes (Richardson and Ternes
2011; Kierkegaard et al. 2011). Approximately 600 different pesticides are
applied annually in the US, whilst in Japan more than 450 active products are distributed annually among 5,400 commercial products. The two countries are key
pesticide users in the world (Chen et al. 2007; Guo et al. 2009; Majewski et al.
2000; Derbalah et al. 2003; Qiu et al. 2005). Several pesticide degradation products are also of concern, such as: alachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA), alachlor
oxanilic acid (OA), acetochlor ESA, acetochlor OA, metolachlor ESA, metolachlor OA, 3-hydroxycarbofuran, terbufos sulfone, alachlor ESA and OA, acetochlor ESA and OA, metolachlor ESA and OA, thiophenol and phenyl disulfide
from dyfonate hydrolysis; 4-chloro-2-methylphenol and 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-nitrophenol from [(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid] (MCPA) phototransformation; desphenyl-chloridazon (DPC) and methylated-DPC of N-chloridazon
degradation (Richardson and Ternes 2011; Buttiglieri et al. 2009; Chiron et al.
2009; Wang et al. 2010).
K. M. G. Mostofa et al.
et al. 2011; Yu et al. 2011; Daughton and Ternes 1999; Keith et al. 2001; Heberer
2002; Balmer et al. 2004; Brooks et al. 2005; Duedahl-Olesen et al. 2005).
It is estimated that approximately 3000 different substances are used as pharmaceutical ingredients, including painkillers, antibiotics, antidiabetics, betablockers, contraceptives, lipid regulators, antidepressants and impotence drugs
(Richardson and Ternes 2011). Pharmaceuticals that arise concern for possible
chronic toxicity are salicylic acid, diclofenac, propranolol, clofibric acid, carbamazepine, atenolol, bezafibrate, cyclophosphamide, ciprofloxacin, furosemide,
hydrochlorothiazide, ibuprofen, lincomycin, ofloxacin, ranitidine, salbutamol,
sulfamethoxazole, diltiazem, acetaminophen, chloramphenicol, florfenicol, thiamphenicol and fluoxetine (Pal et al. 2010; Richardson and Ternes 2011; Hoeger
et al. 2005; Carlsson et al. 2006; Pomati et al. 2006; Kim et al. 2007; Lai et al. 2009).
Occurences of various hormones in natural waters as priority drinking water contaminants are estriol [E3], estrone, progesterone, 17α-ethinylestradiol [EE2], 17α-estradiol,
17β-estradiol [E2], testosterone, androstenedione, equilenin, equilin, mestranol,
and norethindrone (Pal et al. 2010; Richardson and Ternes 2011). Synthetic musk
compounds have diverse chemical structures, such as nitroaromatic groups including musk xylene (1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene) and musk ketone
(4-tert-butyl-2,6-dimethyl-3,5-dinitroacetophenone); polycyclic structures including
7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN; trade name,
tonalide), 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-(g)-2-benzopyran
(HHCB; trade name, galaxolide), 4-acetyl-6-tert-butyl-1,1-dimethylindan (ADBI; trade
name, celestolide), dihydropentamethylindanone (DPMI; trade name, cashmeran), and
5-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,6-hexamethylindan (AHMI, trade name phantolide). They are studied in waters, waste sludge and air (Richardson and Ternes 2011; Gomez et al. 2009;
Wombacher and Hornbuckle 2009; Clara et al. 2011; Ramirez et al. 2011). It has been
shown that galaxolide is the most abundant musk detected in wastewater, reaching up to
2069 and 1432 ng L −1 in influents and effluents, respectively.
Siloxanes include cyclic siloxanes, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6), tetradecamethylcycloheptasiloxane (D7) and linear siloxanes (Richardson and Ternes
2011; Kierkegaard et al. 2011). Approximately 600 different pesticides are
applied annually in the US, whilst in Japan more than 450 active products are distributed annually among 5,400 commercial products. The two countries are key
pesticide users in the world (Chen et al. 2007; Guo et al. 2009; Majewski et al.
2000; Derbalah et al. 2003; Qiu et al. 2005). Several pesticide degradation products are also of concern, such as: alachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA), alachlor
oxanilic acid (OA), acetochlor ESA, acetochlor OA, metolachlor ESA, metolachlor OA, 3-hydroxycarbofuran, terbufos sulfone, alachlor ESA and OA, acetochlor ESA and OA, metolachlor ESA and OA, thiophenol and phenyl disulfide
from dyfonate hydrolysis; 4-chloro-2-methylphenol and 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-nitrophenol from [(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid] (MCPA) phototransformation; desphenyl-chloridazon (DPC) and methylated-DPC of N-chloridazon
degradation (Richardson and Ternes 2011; Buttiglieri et al. 2009; Chiron et al.
2009; Wang et al. 2010).