388
et al. 2013). After birth, the GI tract is colonized by numerous types of microorganisms within 1 week after birth. Human intestinal microflora involves Lactobacillus,
Bifidobacterium, and Clostridia, with significant differences between breast-fed
and bottle-fed newborns (Castellazzi et al. 2013). Variation in the microbiome of
mother’s milk may be associated with mode of delivery, lactation state, use of drugs,
and maternal health. The presence of carbohydrates in the milk might also regulate
the microbiota in milk (McGuire and Mcguire 2015). The immune system is immature at early developmental stages and requires stimuli from other microbes or from
the environment to mature and for increasing humoral immunity, T-cell response,
and cell-mediated immunity. Secretory IgA released into the intestinal lumen is
crucial in mucosal immunity (Rachmilewitz et al. 2004; Iliev et al. 2008).
Development of immune tolerance will be delayed, which may increase the risk of
allergic diseases by low exposure to exogenous antigens in early life (Caffarelli
et al. 2004). The presence of these bacteria is important for T-regulatory cells, which
are related to the maturation regulatory dendritic cells (Holt et al. 1997; Aureli et al.
2011). According to the “hygiene hypothesis” of Guarner et al. (2006a, b), lack of
exposure to microbes in the early stage of life could be partly related to increased
rates of allergies. Nowadays probiotics are used randomly, but a strategic and systematic delivery of probiotics should be developed for improved health.
Alteration of intestinal microbiota results in harmful microbial action as per the
Agence Francaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments/ French Food Safety Agency
(AFSSA 2005). The primary microbial stimulation in the host’s body occurs with
the initiation of the gut microflora, and the presence of other microbes may act as an
inducer of the immune system that prevents atopic diseases (Berg 1996; Björksten
1999). Innate and adaptive immunity as activated in the early postnatal period with
the presence of microbiota and stimulus is required for the successful maturation of
the gut immune system. Insufficient microbial stimulus results in alteration of
mucosal enzyme patterns, abrogation of oral tolerance, and reduction in surface
area and the mucosal barrier (Gaskins 1997; Cebra 1999). A low bifidobacteria to
clostridia ratio was observed in gut microbes in atopic children (Kalliomäki et al.
2001; Björkstén et al. 2001). The positive effect of probiotics is mainly the result of
the capacity of regulating the gut microecology, immunological gut barrier function, intestinal permeability, and up- and downregulating the production of cytokines. Numerous studies have evaluated the effect of probiotic bacteria in children
with atopic dermatitis, with contrasting results.
John H. Stokes and Donald M. Pillsbury (1930) hypothesized that emotional
stress may change the intestinal microflora and associated increase in intestinal permeability and inflammation. Prebiotics and probiotics were reported to reduce
inflammation and oxidative stress when consumed (Schiffrin et al. 2007; Mikelsaar
and Zilmer 2009).They can also regulate the release of inflammatory cytokines
within the skin and be beneficial in acne (Hacini-Rachinel et al. 2009). Probiotics
have been postulated to improve insulin sensitivity, thus linking the role of high
glycemic diets in the exacerbation of acne. Regulation of glycemic control is an
additional mechanism that might influence acne via probiotics. It has become
increasingly evident from the reports that there is a link between low-fiber
T.S. Swapna et al.
et al. 2013). After birth, the GI tract is colonized by numerous types of microorganisms within 1 week after birth. Human intestinal microflora involves Lactobacillus,
Bifidobacterium, and Clostridia, with significant differences between breast-fed
and bottle-fed newborns (Castellazzi et al. 2013). Variation in the microbiome of
mother’s milk may be associated with mode of delivery, lactation state, use of drugs,
and maternal health. The presence of carbohydrates in the milk might also regulate
the microbiota in milk (McGuire and Mcguire 2015). The immune system is immature at early developmental stages and requires stimuli from other microbes or from
the environment to mature and for increasing humoral immunity, T-cell response,
and cell-mediated immunity. Secretory IgA released into the intestinal lumen is
crucial in mucosal immunity (Rachmilewitz et al. 2004; Iliev et al. 2008).
Development of immune tolerance will be delayed, which may increase the risk of
allergic diseases by low exposure to exogenous antigens in early life (Caffarelli
et al. 2004). The presence of these bacteria is important for T-regulatory cells, which
are related to the maturation regulatory dendritic cells (Holt et al. 1997; Aureli et al.
2011). According to the “hygiene hypothesis” of Guarner et al. (2006a, b), lack of
exposure to microbes in the early stage of life could be partly related to increased
rates of allergies. Nowadays probiotics are used randomly, but a strategic and systematic delivery of probiotics should be developed for improved health.
Alteration of intestinal microbiota results in harmful microbial action as per the
Agence Francaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments/ French Food Safety Agency
(AFSSA 2005). The primary microbial stimulation in the host’s body occurs with
the initiation of the gut microflora, and the presence of other microbes may act as an
inducer of the immune system that prevents atopic diseases (Berg 1996; Björksten
1999). Innate and adaptive immunity as activated in the early postnatal period with
the presence of microbiota and stimulus is required for the successful maturation of
the gut immune system. Insufficient microbial stimulus results in alteration of
mucosal enzyme patterns, abrogation of oral tolerance, and reduction in surface
area and the mucosal barrier (Gaskins 1997; Cebra 1999). A low bifidobacteria to
clostridia ratio was observed in gut microbes in atopic children (Kalliomäki et al.
2001; Björkstén et al. 2001). The positive effect of probiotics is mainly the result of
the capacity of regulating the gut microecology, immunological gut barrier function, intestinal permeability, and up- and downregulating the production of cytokines. Numerous studies have evaluated the effect of probiotic bacteria in children
with atopic dermatitis, with contrasting results.
John H. Stokes and Donald M. Pillsbury (1930) hypothesized that emotional
stress may change the intestinal microflora and associated increase in intestinal permeability and inflammation. Prebiotics and probiotics were reported to reduce
inflammation and oxidative stress when consumed (Schiffrin et al. 2007; Mikelsaar
and Zilmer 2009).They can also regulate the release of inflammatory cytokines
within the skin and be beneficial in acne (Hacini-Rachinel et al. 2009). Probiotics
have been postulated to improve insulin sensitivity, thus linking the role of high
glycemic diets in the exacerbation of acne. Regulation of glycemic control is an
additional mechanism that might influence acne via probiotics. It has become
increasingly evident from the reports that there is a link between low-fiber
T.S. Swapna et al.