rifting, heterogeneous structures appear such as detachment faults that increase the asymmetry. Despite 40 years
of active research, there is still much to learn about rifting
as illustrated by recent developments.
Acknowledgments
This manuscript has benefited from Françoise Boudier’s
and Gianreto Manatschal’s reviews.
Bibliography
Allen, P. A., and Allen, J. R., 2005. Basin Analysis. Malden: Blackwell, p. 537.
Baldridge, W. S., Eyal, Y., Bartov, Y., Steinitz, G., and Eyal, L.,
1991. Miocene magmatism of Sinai related to the opening of
the Red Sea. Tectonophysics, 197, 181–201.
Boillot, G., Girardeau, J., and Kornprobst, J., 1988. The rifting of
the Galicia margin: crustal thinning and emplacement of mantle
rock on the seafloor. In Proceeding ODP, Scientific Results, Vol.
103, pp. 741–756
Bonatti, E., and Seyler, M., 1987. Crustal underplating and evolution in the Red Sea Rift: uplifted gabbro/gneiss crustal complexes on Zabargad and Brothers Islands. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 92, 12803–12821.
Brun, J. P., and Beslier, M. O., 1996. Mantle exhumation at passive
margins, 1996. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142,
161–17.
Buck, W.R., Martinez, F., Steckler, M.S., and Cochran, J.R., 1988.
Thermal consequences of lithospheric extension; pure and simple. Tectonics, 7(2), 213–234.
Burrus, J., 1989. Review of geodynamic model for extensional
basins: the paradox of stretching in the Golfe de Lions
(Northern Mediterranean). Bulletin Socie ´te ´ ge ´ologique de
France, 8, 377–393.
Cloetingh, S., and Ziegler, P. A., 2007. Tectonic models for the evolution of sedimentary basins. Treatise on Geophysics, 6(11),
485–611.
Cochran, J. R., and Martinez, F., 1988. Evidence from the northern
Red Sea on the transition from continental to oceanic rifting.
Tectonophysics, 153, 25–53.
Coleman, R. G., and McGuire, A. V., 1988. Magma systems related
to the Red Sea opening. Tectonophysics, 150, 77–100.
Hempton, M. R., 1987. Constraints on Arabian plate motion and
extensional history of the Red Sea. Tectonics, 6, 687–705.
Huismans, R. S., and Beaumont, C., 2003. Symmetric and asymmetric lithospheric extension: relative effects of frictional-plastic
and viscous strain softening. Journal of Geophysical Research,
108, 111–137, doi:10.1029/2002jb002026.
Huismans, R. S., and Beaumont, C., 2007. Roles of lithospheric
strain softening and heterogeneity in determining the geometry
of rifts and continental margins. In Imaging, Mapping and
Modeling Continental Lithosphere Extension and Breakup. London: Geological Society of London, Vol. 282, pp. 111–131.
Izzeldin, A. Y., 1987. Seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys in the
central part of the Red Sea: their interpretation and implications
for the structure and evolution of the Red Sea. Tectonophysics,
143, 269–306.
Jones, P. W., 1976. Ages of the lower flood basalts of the Ethiopian
plateau. Nature, 261, 567–569.
McKenzie, D. P., 1978. Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 40, 25–32.
McMullen, R. J., and McMorhaz, B., 1989. An interactive
thermoelastic rift mechanism. Journal of Geophysical Research,
94, 13951–13960.
Nicolas, A., Achauer, U., and Daignières, L., 1994. Rift initiation by
lithospheric rupture. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 123,
281–298.
Péron-Pinvidic, G., and Manatschal, G., 2009. The final rifting
evolution at deep magma-poor passive margins from IberiaNewfoundland: a new point of view. International Journal
of Earth Science, 98, 1581–1597, doi:10.1007/s00531-0080337-9.
Sachau, T., and Koehn, D., 2010. Faulting of the lithosphere during
extension and related rift-flank uplift: a numerical study. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 99, 1619–1632.
Sebai, A., Zumbo, V., Féraud, G., Bertrand, H., Hussain, H. G.,
Giannerini, G., and Campredon, R., 1991. Ar40/Ar39 dating of
alkaline and tholeitic magmatism of Saudi Arabia related to early
Red Sea rifting. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 104,
473–487.
Spohn, T., and Schubert, G., 1982. Convective thinning of the lithosphere: a mechanism for the initiation of continental rifting.
Journal Geophysical Research, 87, 4669–4681.
Styles, P., and Gerdes, K. D., 1983. St John’s Island (Red Sea): a
new geophysical model and implications for the emplacement
of ultramafic rocks in fracture zones and at continental margins.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 65, 353–368.
Tucholke, B. E., Behn, M. D., Buck, W. R., and Lin, J., 2008. Role
of melt supply in oceanic detachment faulting and formation of
megamullions. Geology, 36(6), 455–458, doi:10.1130/
G24639A.
Wernicke, B., 1981. Low-angle normal faults in the Basin and
Range Province: nappe tectonics in an extending orogen. Nature,
291, 645–648.
White, R., and McKenzie, D., 1989. Magmatism at rift zones: the
generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts.
Journal Geophysical Research, 94, 7685, doi: 10.1029/
JB94iB06p07685
Cross-references
Crustal Accretion
Layering of Oceanic Crust
Metamorphic Core Complexes
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Plate Tectonics
OCEANIC SPREADING CENTERS
Satish C. Singh
1 and Adolphe Nicolas
2
1
Laboratory of Marine Geosciences, Institute of Earth
Physics of Paris, Paris, France
2
Geosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier 2,
Montpellier, France
Synonyms
Back-arc spreading center, Mid-ocean ridge, Oceanic
ridge
Definition
Seafloor spreading is a process on the earth’s surface
where oceanic lithosphere is created.
Full spreading rate is the rate (mm/year) at which two
plates diverge from each other.
OCEANIC SPREADING CENTERS
571
of active research, there is still much to learn about rifting
as illustrated by recent developments.
Acknowledgments
This manuscript has benefited from Françoise Boudier’s
and Gianreto Manatschal’s reviews.
Bibliography
Allen, P. A., and Allen, J. R., 2005. Basin Analysis. Malden: Blackwell, p. 537.
Baldridge, W. S., Eyal, Y., Bartov, Y., Steinitz, G., and Eyal, L.,
1991. Miocene magmatism of Sinai related to the opening of
the Red Sea. Tectonophysics, 197, 181–201.
Boillot, G., Girardeau, J., and Kornprobst, J., 1988. The rifting of
the Galicia margin: crustal thinning and emplacement of mantle
rock on the seafloor. In Proceeding ODP, Scientific Results, Vol.
103, pp. 741–756
Bonatti, E., and Seyler, M., 1987. Crustal underplating and evolution in the Red Sea Rift: uplifted gabbro/gneiss crustal complexes on Zabargad and Brothers Islands. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 92, 12803–12821.
Brun, J. P., and Beslier, M. O., 1996. Mantle exhumation at passive
margins, 1996. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142,
161–17.
Buck, W.R., Martinez, F., Steckler, M.S., and Cochran, J.R., 1988.
Thermal consequences of lithospheric extension; pure and simple. Tectonics, 7(2), 213–234.
Burrus, J., 1989. Review of geodynamic model for extensional
basins: the paradox of stretching in the Golfe de Lions
(Northern Mediterranean). Bulletin Socie ´te ´ ge ´ologique de
France, 8, 377–393.
Cloetingh, S., and Ziegler, P. A., 2007. Tectonic models for the evolution of sedimentary basins. Treatise on Geophysics, 6(11),
485–611.
Cochran, J. R., and Martinez, F., 1988. Evidence from the northern
Red Sea on the transition from continental to oceanic rifting.
Tectonophysics, 153, 25–53.
Coleman, R. G., and McGuire, A. V., 1988. Magma systems related
to the Red Sea opening. Tectonophysics, 150, 77–100.
Hempton, M. R., 1987. Constraints on Arabian plate motion and
extensional history of the Red Sea. Tectonics, 6, 687–705.
Huismans, R. S., and Beaumont, C., 2003. Symmetric and asymmetric lithospheric extension: relative effects of frictional-plastic
and viscous strain softening. Journal of Geophysical Research,
108, 111–137, doi:10.1029/2002jb002026.
Huismans, R. S., and Beaumont, C., 2007. Roles of lithospheric
strain softening and heterogeneity in determining the geometry
of rifts and continental margins. In Imaging, Mapping and
Modeling Continental Lithosphere Extension and Breakup. London: Geological Society of London, Vol. 282, pp. 111–131.
Izzeldin, A. Y., 1987. Seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys in the
central part of the Red Sea: their interpretation and implications
for the structure and evolution of the Red Sea. Tectonophysics,
143, 269–306.
Jones, P. W., 1976. Ages of the lower flood basalts of the Ethiopian
plateau. Nature, 261, 567–569.
McKenzie, D. P., 1978. Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 40, 25–32.
McMullen, R. J., and McMorhaz, B., 1989. An interactive
thermoelastic rift mechanism. Journal of Geophysical Research,
94, 13951–13960.
Nicolas, A., Achauer, U., and Daignières, L., 1994. Rift initiation by
lithospheric rupture. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 123,
281–298.
Péron-Pinvidic, G., and Manatschal, G., 2009. The final rifting
evolution at deep magma-poor passive margins from IberiaNewfoundland: a new point of view. International Journal
of Earth Science, 98, 1581–1597, doi:10.1007/s00531-0080337-9.
Sachau, T., and Koehn, D., 2010. Faulting of the lithosphere during
extension and related rift-flank uplift: a numerical study. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 99, 1619–1632.
Sebai, A., Zumbo, V., Féraud, G., Bertrand, H., Hussain, H. G.,
Giannerini, G., and Campredon, R., 1991. Ar40/Ar39 dating of
alkaline and tholeitic magmatism of Saudi Arabia related to early
Red Sea rifting. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 104,
473–487.
Spohn, T., and Schubert, G., 1982. Convective thinning of the lithosphere: a mechanism for the initiation of continental rifting.
Journal Geophysical Research, 87, 4669–4681.
Styles, P., and Gerdes, K. D., 1983. St John’s Island (Red Sea): a
new geophysical model and implications for the emplacement
of ultramafic rocks in fracture zones and at continental margins.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 65, 353–368.
Tucholke, B. E., Behn, M. D., Buck, W. R., and Lin, J., 2008. Role
of melt supply in oceanic detachment faulting and formation of
megamullions. Geology, 36(6), 455–458, doi:10.1130/
G24639A.
Wernicke, B., 1981. Low-angle normal faults in the Basin and
Range Province: nappe tectonics in an extending orogen. Nature,
291, 645–648.
White, R., and McKenzie, D., 1989. Magmatism at rift zones: the
generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts.
Journal Geophysical Research, 94, 7685, doi: 10.1029/
JB94iB06p07685
Cross-references
Crustal Accretion
Layering of Oceanic Crust
Metamorphic Core Complexes
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Plate Tectonics
OCEANIC SPREADING CENTERS
Satish C. Singh
1 and Adolphe Nicolas
2
1
Laboratory of Marine Geosciences, Institute of Earth
Physics of Paris, Paris, France
2
Geosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier 2,
Montpellier, France
Synonyms
Back-arc spreading center, Mid-ocean ridge, Oceanic
ridge
Definition
Seafloor spreading is a process on the earth’s surface
where oceanic lithosphere is created.
Full spreading rate is the rate (mm/year) at which two
plates diverge from each other.
OCEANIC SPREADING CENTERS
571