Zonneveld, K. A. F., Versteegh, G. J. M., and de Lange, G. J., 2001.
Palaeoproductivity and post-depositional aerobic organic matter
decay reflected by dinoflagellate cyst assemblages of the Eastern
Mediterranean S1 sapropel. Marine Geology, 172, 181–195.
Websites
Deep Sea Drilling Project. Available online at www.deepseadrilling.
org. Accessed 18 July 2015.
Ocean Drilling Program. Available online at www.odplegacy.org.
Accessed 18 July 2015.
International Ocean Discovery Program. Available online at www.
iodp.org. Accessed 18 July 2015.
Cross-references
Biochronology, Biostratigraphy
Deep-sea Sediments
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Foraminifers (Benthic)
Foraminifers (Planktonic)
Geologic Time Scale
Ocean Drilling
Paleoceanography
Palynology (Pollen, Spores, etc.)
Pteropods
Radiolarians
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
Sven Petersen
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research,
Kiel, Germany
Synonyms
Seabed mineral resources
Definition
Marine mineral resources are accumulations of minerals
that form at or below the seabed and from which metals,
minerals, elements, or aggregate might be extracted as a
resource. They are distinguished from energy resources
such as oil, gas, or gas hydrates and living resources such
as fish, although many of the metals potentially available
are essential for green-energy applications.
Introduction
Earth provides natural resources including minerals and
metals that are vital for human life. At present almost all
of these resources are mined on land with large high-grade
deposits becoming more and more difficult to find, driving
industry to lower-grade sites where mining has greater
environmental impacts or to greater depth. At the same
time, the global demand for metals is suspected to rise further due to steady population growth, expected to reach
9 billion by the year 2050 (United Nations, 2014), and
strong economic growth of countries such as China and
India. The population growth may cause increasing landuse conflicts between the mining industry and the need
to feed and house the growing population. In addition to
the rising demand for metals, geopolitical issues can also
limit the availability of metal resources. This was evident
over the past years with China blocking export of “rare
earth elements” from global markets awakening the media
and policy. There is therefore a foreseeable risk of increasing resource supply shortages for metals that are important
to the economy (DOE, 2011; European Commission,
2014). Hence, a number of countries are looking for ways
to ensure secure supplies of these critical metals. In this
rapidly changing global economic landscape, mining in
the deep sea is one of the areas of interest not only for commercial entities but also for governments.
Legal aspects
Marine mineral resources fall under two different legal
regimes depending on their location: they either occur
within the legal boundaries of national jurisdiction or
occur in areas beyond national jurisdictions. In terms of
international law, the legal framework for deep-sea mining
of mineral resources is set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as modified by
the Part XI Implementation Agreement. UNCLOS distinguishes between “maritime zones” under the jurisdiction
of coastal states (internal and archipelagic waters, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, and continental shelf)
and “areas beyond national jurisdiction,” namely, international waters and the seabed beyond the continental
shelves of coastal states (called The Area in Part XI of
UNCLOS). Since it went into effect in 1994, this treaty
has formed the basis for the use of marine raw materials
from the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
As of March 2015, UNCLOS has been signed by
166 countries and the European Union.
With regards to marine mineral resources in areas under
national jurisdiction, the coastal states have regulatory
jurisdiction and can design and adopt their own legislation. The outer limit of the national jurisdiction is defined
by the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ),
but individual states can apply to the Commission on the
Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) for an extension
for up to 350 nautical miles or even beyond that if certain
geological conditions are met (extended continental shelf
as a juridical term not as a geological term).
All rights to prospect (search without exclusive rights),
exploration (search with exclusive rights), and deep-sea
mining of mineral resources in The Area are managed
and promoted by the International Seabed Authority
(ISA) that was established in Kingston (Jamaica) in 1994
based on UNCLOS. The regulatory regime for mineral
resources of the deep sea is not complete. Regulations on
prospecting and exploration in The Area have been
adopted for manganese nodules, Co-rich ferromanganese
crusts, and seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) (ISA,
2013a). The regulations for deep-sea mining
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
475
Palaeoproductivity and post-depositional aerobic organic matter
decay reflected by dinoflagellate cyst assemblages of the Eastern
Mediterranean S1 sapropel. Marine Geology, 172, 181–195.
Websites
Deep Sea Drilling Project. Available online at www.deepseadrilling.
org. Accessed 18 July 2015.
Ocean Drilling Program. Available online at www.odplegacy.org.
Accessed 18 July 2015.
International Ocean Discovery Program. Available online at www.
iodp.org. Accessed 18 July 2015.
Cross-references
Biochronology, Biostratigraphy
Deep-sea Sediments
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Foraminifers (Benthic)
Foraminifers (Planktonic)
Geologic Time Scale
Ocean Drilling
Paleoceanography
Palynology (Pollen, Spores, etc.)
Pteropods
Radiolarians
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
Sven Petersen
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research,
Kiel, Germany
Synonyms
Seabed mineral resources
Definition
Marine mineral resources are accumulations of minerals
that form at or below the seabed and from which metals,
minerals, elements, or aggregate might be extracted as a
resource. They are distinguished from energy resources
such as oil, gas, or gas hydrates and living resources such
as fish, although many of the metals potentially available
are essential for green-energy applications.
Introduction
Earth provides natural resources including minerals and
metals that are vital for human life. At present almost all
of these resources are mined on land with large high-grade
deposits becoming more and more difficult to find, driving
industry to lower-grade sites where mining has greater
environmental impacts or to greater depth. At the same
time, the global demand for metals is suspected to rise further due to steady population growth, expected to reach
9 billion by the year 2050 (United Nations, 2014), and
strong economic growth of countries such as China and
India. The population growth may cause increasing landuse conflicts between the mining industry and the need
to feed and house the growing population. In addition to
the rising demand for metals, geopolitical issues can also
limit the availability of metal resources. This was evident
over the past years with China blocking export of “rare
earth elements” from global markets awakening the media
and policy. There is therefore a foreseeable risk of increasing resource supply shortages for metals that are important
to the economy (DOE, 2011; European Commission,
2014). Hence, a number of countries are looking for ways
to ensure secure supplies of these critical metals. In this
rapidly changing global economic landscape, mining in
the deep sea is one of the areas of interest not only for commercial entities but also for governments.
Legal aspects
Marine mineral resources fall under two different legal
regimes depending on their location: they either occur
within the legal boundaries of national jurisdiction or
occur in areas beyond national jurisdictions. In terms of
international law, the legal framework for deep-sea mining
of mineral resources is set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as modified by
the Part XI Implementation Agreement. UNCLOS distinguishes between “maritime zones” under the jurisdiction
of coastal states (internal and archipelagic waters, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, and continental shelf)
and “areas beyond national jurisdiction,” namely, international waters and the seabed beyond the continental
shelves of coastal states (called The Area in Part XI of
UNCLOS). Since it went into effect in 1994, this treaty
has formed the basis for the use of marine raw materials
from the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
As of March 2015, UNCLOS has been signed by
166 countries and the European Union.
With regards to marine mineral resources in areas under
national jurisdiction, the coastal states have regulatory
jurisdiction and can design and adopt their own legislation. The outer limit of the national jurisdiction is defined
by the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ),
but individual states can apply to the Commission on the
Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) for an extension
for up to 350 nautical miles or even beyond that if certain
geological conditions are met (extended continental shelf
as a juridical term not as a geological term).
All rights to prospect (search without exclusive rights),
exploration (search with exclusive rights), and deep-sea
mining of mineral resources in The Area are managed
and promoted by the International Seabed Authority
(ISA) that was established in Kingston (Jamaica) in 1994
based on UNCLOS. The regulatory regime for mineral
resources of the deep sea is not complete. Regulations on
prospecting and exploration in The Area have been
adopted for manganese nodules, Co-rich ferromanganese
crusts, and seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) (ISA,
2013a). The regulations for deep-sea mining
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
475