of suspended particles increases water turbidity, which
results in reduced sunlight penetration and decreased primary productivity (Water Encyclopedia).
Importance of marginal seas
The marginal seas are often rich in oil and gas, fishery and
biomass, and other resources. They also provide spaces for
shipping and other human activities. These seas are the
frontal areas of sea-land interactions with extensive mass,
energy, and gene fluxes and have significant influences on
global climate system. The thick sediments in the marginal
seas contain detailed and often magnified records on the
geological and environmental evolution of adjacent land
masses (Clift et al., 2004; Wang, 1999).
The marginal seas in the geological context are a firstorder tectonic feature in the Earth system. Along the
boundaries between land masses and open oceans, marginal seas formed only in particular segment mainly in
the western Pacific Ocean. The origin of marginal seas is
a key to a deep understanding of the Earth’s geodynamics.
The formation of marginal seas had exerted significant
impacts on the Earth system, such as on the geography,
environment, and resources, on the ocean circulation and
global climate, on the land-sea interactions and sedimentation, etc. These are the current research frontiers in
geosciences.
Summary
It should be noticed that the definition of “marginal sea” is
slightly different in disciplines of geology, geography and
oceanography, and geopolitics. The most restrict definition is in geological context where a marginal sea must
be underlain by oceanic crust, which is formed by lithosphere breakup and seafloor spreading. Marginal seas
have many features different from those of open oceans.
The formation of marginal seas created a space for extensive interactions between land mass and open oceans and
has a significant impact on global geography, oceanography, geology, and climate system. The marginal seas also
provide abundant natural resources and space for human
being. The study of marginal seas is a frontier field in
geosciences.
Bibliography
Clift, P. D., Layne, G. D., and Bliesztajn, J., 2004. Marine sedimentary evidence for monsoon strengthening, Tibetan uplift and
drainage evolution. In Clift, P., Kuhnt, W., Wang, P., and Hayes,
D. (eds.), Continent-Ocean Interactions within East Asian Marginal Seas. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union,
pp. 255–282.
Curray, J.R., Moore, D.G., Kelts, K., Einsele, G., 1982. Tectonics
and geological history of the passive continental margin at the
tip of Baja California, in: Curray, J.R., Moore, D.G. (Ed.), Initial
Reports DSDP 64. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, p. 1089–1116.
Karig, D. E., 1971. Origin and development of marginal basins in
the western Pacific. Journal of Geophysical Research, 76,
2542–2561.
Matsuda, T., and Uyeda, S., 1971. On the pacific-type orogeny and
its model – extension of the paired belts concept and possible
origin of marginal seas. Tectonophysics, 11, 5–27.
Packham, G. H., and Falvey, D. A., 1971. An hypothesis for the formation of marginal seas in the western pacific. Tectonophysics,
11, 79–109.
Sleep, N., and Toksöz, M. N., 1971. Evolution of marginal basins.
Nature, 233, 548–550.
Tamaki, K., and Honza, E., 1991. Global tectonics and formation of
marginal basins: role of the western Pacific. Episodes, 14,
225–230.
Wang, P., 1999. Response of Western Pacific marginal seas to glacial cycles: paleoceanographic and sedimentological features.
Marine Geology, 156, 5–39.
Wang, P., 2004. Cenozoic deformation and the history of sea-land
interactions in Asia. In Clift, P., Kuhnt, W., Wang, P., and Hayes,
D. (eds.), Continent-Ocean Interactions within East Asian Marginal Seas. Washington, DC: AGU, pp. 1–22.
Cross-references
Lithosphere: Structure and Composition
Marginal Seas
Ocean Drilling
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Plate Tectonics
Subduction
Transform Faults
Upwelling
MARINE EVAPORITES
Walter E. Dean
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO, USA
Definition
Marine evaporites form by extreme evaporation of seawater either directly in an open-water environment with
restricted circulation or diagenetically from sediment pore
waters.
Introduction
Geology hangs its interpretive powers on the principal of
uniformitarianism, i.e., the present is the key to the past.
Unfortunately for marine evaporates, there is no present
example for the thick, aerially extensive ancient evaporite
deposits (“saline giants”). That would require a large, deep
basin with a marine connection but with restricted circulation, and a huge influx of seawater for a long time. The
marine connection could be surface water or marine-fed
groundwater. It would also require a warm climate with
extreme net evaporation that existed for a long time. The
Quaternary is not a good analog for the extent and distribution of climates that existed throughout most of
the Phanerozoic because during the Quaternary the world
was in an icehouse mode. However, during most of the
Phanerozoic, the world was in a warm, greenhouse mode
(Warren, 2010). In addition, the average salinity of the
MARINE EVAPORITES
427
results in reduced sunlight penetration and decreased primary productivity (Water Encyclopedia).
Importance of marginal seas
The marginal seas are often rich in oil and gas, fishery and
biomass, and other resources. They also provide spaces for
shipping and other human activities. These seas are the
frontal areas of sea-land interactions with extensive mass,
energy, and gene fluxes and have significant influences on
global climate system. The thick sediments in the marginal
seas contain detailed and often magnified records on the
geological and environmental evolution of adjacent land
masses (Clift et al., 2004; Wang, 1999).
The marginal seas in the geological context are a firstorder tectonic feature in the Earth system. Along the
boundaries between land masses and open oceans, marginal seas formed only in particular segment mainly in
the western Pacific Ocean. The origin of marginal seas is
a key to a deep understanding of the Earth’s geodynamics.
The formation of marginal seas had exerted significant
impacts on the Earth system, such as on the geography,
environment, and resources, on the ocean circulation and
global climate, on the land-sea interactions and sedimentation, etc. These are the current research frontiers in
geosciences.
Summary
It should be noticed that the definition of “marginal sea” is
slightly different in disciplines of geology, geography and
oceanography, and geopolitics. The most restrict definition is in geological context where a marginal sea must
be underlain by oceanic crust, which is formed by lithosphere breakup and seafloor spreading. Marginal seas
have many features different from those of open oceans.
The formation of marginal seas created a space for extensive interactions between land mass and open oceans and
has a significant impact on global geography, oceanography, geology, and climate system. The marginal seas also
provide abundant natural resources and space for human
being. The study of marginal seas is a frontier field in
geosciences.
Bibliography
Clift, P. D., Layne, G. D., and Bliesztajn, J., 2004. Marine sedimentary evidence for monsoon strengthening, Tibetan uplift and
drainage evolution. In Clift, P., Kuhnt, W., Wang, P., and Hayes,
D. (eds.), Continent-Ocean Interactions within East Asian Marginal Seas. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union,
pp. 255–282.
Curray, J.R., Moore, D.G., Kelts, K., Einsele, G., 1982. Tectonics
and geological history of the passive continental margin at the
tip of Baja California, in: Curray, J.R., Moore, D.G. (Ed.), Initial
Reports DSDP 64. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, p. 1089–1116.
Karig, D. E., 1971. Origin and development of marginal basins in
the western Pacific. Journal of Geophysical Research, 76,
2542–2561.
Matsuda, T., and Uyeda, S., 1971. On the pacific-type orogeny and
its model – extension of the paired belts concept and possible
origin of marginal seas. Tectonophysics, 11, 5–27.
Packham, G. H., and Falvey, D. A., 1971. An hypothesis for the formation of marginal seas in the western pacific. Tectonophysics,
11, 79–109.
Sleep, N., and Toksöz, M. N., 1971. Evolution of marginal basins.
Nature, 233, 548–550.
Tamaki, K., and Honza, E., 1991. Global tectonics and formation of
marginal basins: role of the western Pacific. Episodes, 14,
225–230.
Wang, P., 1999. Response of Western Pacific marginal seas to glacial cycles: paleoceanographic and sedimentological features.
Marine Geology, 156, 5–39.
Wang, P., 2004. Cenozoic deformation and the history of sea-land
interactions in Asia. In Clift, P., Kuhnt, W., Wang, P., and Hayes,
D. (eds.), Continent-Ocean Interactions within East Asian Marginal Seas. Washington, DC: AGU, pp. 1–22.
Cross-references
Lithosphere: Structure and Composition
Marginal Seas
Ocean Drilling
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Plate Tectonics
Subduction
Transform Faults
Upwelling
MARINE EVAPORITES
Walter E. Dean
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO, USA
Definition
Marine evaporites form by extreme evaporation of seawater either directly in an open-water environment with
restricted circulation or diagenetically from sediment pore
waters.
Introduction
Geology hangs its interpretive powers on the principal of
uniformitarianism, i.e., the present is the key to the past.
Unfortunately for marine evaporates, there is no present
example for the thick, aerially extensive ancient evaporite
deposits (“saline giants”). That would require a large, deep
basin with a marine connection but with restricted circulation, and a huge influx of seawater for a long time. The
marine connection could be surface water or marine-fed
groundwater. It would also require a warm climate with
extreme net evaporation that existed for a long time. The
Quaternary is not a good analog for the extent and distribution of climates that existed throughout most of
the Phanerozoic because during the Quaternary the world
was in an icehouse mode. However, during most of the
Phanerozoic, the world was in a warm, greenhouse mode
(Warren, 2010). In addition, the average salinity of the
MARINE EVAPORITES
427