of each indicator observed across the landscape, as specific estuarine systems or coastal enclaves.
Severe human disturbance
Predominant drivers
The drivers of severe human disturbance are grouped as
direct human influences. They mostly include removal
and replacement of tidal wetlands with coastal development as shoreline lands for ports and cities (Figure 3).
However, with increasing populations in such areas, there
are additional more cryptic influences of excessive access,
encroachment, and inappropriate use. In rural areas, significant direct damage is caused by livestock grazing by
foliage removal and breakage, plus trampling and sediment disturbance. In arid areas, particularly during
Mangrove Coasts, Figure 2 A listing of the 21 key types of change in tidal wetlands grouped under three pressure categories
(human direct, indirect, and mostly natural), for six groupings of drivers of change, along with listings of respective factors that
influence coastal and estuarine habitats (Duke et al., 2003).
416
MANGROVE COASTS
Severe human disturbance
Predominant drivers
The drivers of severe human disturbance are grouped as
direct human influences. They mostly include removal
and replacement of tidal wetlands with coastal development as shoreline lands for ports and cities (Figure 3).
However, with increasing populations in such areas, there
are additional more cryptic influences of excessive access,
encroachment, and inappropriate use. In rural areas, significant direct damage is caused by livestock grazing by
foliage removal and breakage, plus trampling and sediment disturbance. In arid areas, particularly during
Mangrove Coasts, Figure 2 A listing of the 21 key types of change in tidal wetlands grouped under three pressure categories
(human direct, indirect, and mostly natural), for six groupings of drivers of change, along with listings of respective factors that
influence coastal and estuarine habitats (Duke et al., 2003).
416
MANGROVE COASTS