C. M., Kasting, J. F., Kerp, H., Korn, D., Krijgsman, W.,
Lourens, L. J., MacGabhann, B. A., Maslin, M. A., Melezhik,
V. A., Nutman, A. P., Papineau, D., Piller, W. E., Pirajno, F.,
Ravizza, G. E., Sadler, P. M., Speijer, R. P., Steffen, W., Thomas,
E., Wardlaw, B. R., Wilson, D. S., and Xiao, S., 2012. The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Boston: Elsevier, 1129 pp.
Harland, W. B., Cox, A. V., Llewellyn, P. G., Pickton, C. A. G.,
Smith, A. G., and Walters, R., 1982. A Geologic Time Scale.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 131 pp.
Harland, W. B., Armstrong, R. L., Cox, A. V., Craig, L. A., Smith,
A. G., and Smith, D. G., 1990, A Geologic Time Scale 1989.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 263 pp.
Hilgen, F. J., Lourens, L. J., and VanDam, J. A., 2012. The Neogene
Period. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.), The Geologic Time
Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 923–979.
Holmes, A., 1960. A revised geological time-scale. Transactions of
the Edinburgh Geological Society, 17, 183–216.
Holmes, A., 1965. Principles of Physical Geology. London: Nelson
Printers, 1288 p.
Kuiper, K. F., Deino, A., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., Renne, P. R.,
and Wijbrans, J. R., 2008. Synchronizing rock clocks of Earth
history. Science, 320(5875), 500–504.
Narbonne, G., Xiao, S., and Shields, G. A., 2012. The Ediacaran
period. In Gradstein, R. M. (ed.), The Geologic Time Scale
2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 413–437.
Ogg, J. G., Ogg, G., and Gradstein, F. M., 2008. The Concise Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
177 pp.
Ogg, J. G., and Hinnov, L. A., 2012. The cretaceous period. In
Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 793–855.
Schmitz, M. D., 2012. Radiogenic isotopes geochronology. In
Gradstein, R. M. (ed.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 115–127.
Vanden Berghe, N., Hilgen, F. J., and Speijer, R. P., 2012.
The Paleogene Period. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.),
The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 855–923.
Van Kranendonk, M., 2012. A chronostratigraphic division
of the Precambrian. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.),
The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 299–393.
Cross-references
Biochronology, Biostratigraphy
Geochronology: Uranium-series Dating of Ocean Formations
Radiocarbon: Clock and Tracer
GLACIAL-MARINE SEDIMENTATION
Alexander P. Lisitzin and Vladimir P. Shevchenko
P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy
of Sciences (IO RAS), Moscow, Russia
Definition
Glacial-marine sedimentation is the process of sediment
deposition in the sea after release from ice shelves, tidewater ice fronts, icebergs, or sea ice.
Introduction
Glacial type of sedimentation dominates in polar and subpolar parts of the World Ocean and continues the regions
of glacial sedimentation both on the land (in region land
ice sheets, mountain glaciation, and other types of inland
ice) and in seas and oceans (Lisitzin, 1972, 2002, 2010).
Water catchments are changed here by ice catchments
and annually are replenished by new portions of snow.
In this kingdom of snow, ice and cold minimal values of
winter temperatures reach À71
C in the Northern Hemisphere and À89
C in the Southern Hemisphere. It influences on the development of life in the ocean and on the
land and residual soils at the stage of preparation of sedimentary matter on the land. It determines at a large extent
both quantity, composition, and properties of marine bottom sediments and suspended particulate matter in water
column.
Glacial-marine dynamics and associated sedimentary
processes are closely tied to glacial regime and reflect
dominant climate conditions (Trusel et al., 2010).
Glacial-marine processes such as sediment flux and yield,
terminus fluctuations, calving rates, freshwater flux, and
mass balance are useful for comparison among differing
glacial and climatic regimes. Understanding the relationship of complex modern processes to those found in
glacial-marine sediment record can enhance interpretation
of past glacial-marine processes and changes in biological
productivity (Powell, 1984; Trusel et al., 2010).
According to the composition and genesis of ice and
sedimentary material, glacial type of sedimentation could
be divided into two subtypes:
1. Sedimentation from glacier ice, including iceberg sedimentation (defined by land glaciers reaching the sea)
2. Sea-ice sedimentation (defined by sea ice)
Sedimentation from glacier ice
Icebergs are released where glaciers, ice sheets, and ice
shelves terminate in the ocean (Warren, 1992). Often icebergs released in fjords (Mugford and Dowdeswell,
2010). The dominant sedimentary process in most fjords
is sedimentation from the brackish plumes rich in
suspended particulate matter that emerges from either
glacier-fed river mouths or tidewater cliff. Modern
glacial-marine environments are widely spread in the Antarctic, Alaska, Greenland, Baffin Island, British Columbia, Svalbard, Norway, Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya
Zemlya (Drewry and Cooper, 1981; Elverhøi et al.,
1983; Molnia, 1983; Cowan and Powell, 1991; Syvitski
et al., 1996; Gilbert et al., 2003; Kehrl et al., 2011;
Politova et al., 2012; Szczucinski and Zajaczkowski,
2012; Chewings et al., 2014; Miller et al., 2015).
The vertical sediment fluxes in these areas are relatively
high. For example, maximum sediment flux from temperate glaciers in southeastern Alaska was measured in
McBride Inlet; in average it was 53 kg m
À2 day
À1
(Cowan and Powell, 1991). In Kongsfjorden, Svalbard,
near Kronebreen, glacier sediment flux reached
288
GLACIAL-MARINE SEDIMENTATION
Lourens, L. J., MacGabhann, B. A., Maslin, M. A., Melezhik,
V. A., Nutman, A. P., Papineau, D., Piller, W. E., Pirajno, F.,
Ravizza, G. E., Sadler, P. M., Speijer, R. P., Steffen, W., Thomas,
E., Wardlaw, B. R., Wilson, D. S., and Xiao, S., 2012. The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Boston: Elsevier, 1129 pp.
Harland, W. B., Cox, A. V., Llewellyn, P. G., Pickton, C. A. G.,
Smith, A. G., and Walters, R., 1982. A Geologic Time Scale.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 131 pp.
Harland, W. B., Armstrong, R. L., Cox, A. V., Craig, L. A., Smith,
A. G., and Smith, D. G., 1990, A Geologic Time Scale 1989.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 263 pp.
Hilgen, F. J., Lourens, L. J., and VanDam, J. A., 2012. The Neogene
Period. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.), The Geologic Time
Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 923–979.
Holmes, A., 1960. A revised geological time-scale. Transactions of
the Edinburgh Geological Society, 17, 183–216.
Holmes, A., 1965. Principles of Physical Geology. London: Nelson
Printers, 1288 p.
Kuiper, K. F., Deino, A., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., Renne, P. R.,
and Wijbrans, J. R., 2008. Synchronizing rock clocks of Earth
history. Science, 320(5875), 500–504.
Narbonne, G., Xiao, S., and Shields, G. A., 2012. The Ediacaran
period. In Gradstein, R. M. (ed.), The Geologic Time Scale
2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 413–437.
Ogg, J. G., Ogg, G., and Gradstein, F. M., 2008. The Concise Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
177 pp.
Ogg, J. G., and Hinnov, L. A., 2012. The cretaceous period. In
Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 793–855.
Schmitz, M. D., 2012. Radiogenic isotopes geochronology. In
Gradstein, R. M. (ed.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 115–127.
Vanden Berghe, N., Hilgen, F. J., and Speijer, R. P., 2012.
The Paleogene Period. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.),
The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 855–923.
Van Kranendonk, M., 2012. A chronostratigraphic division
of the Precambrian. In Gradstein, R. M., et al. (eds.),
The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 299–393.
Cross-references
Biochronology, Biostratigraphy
Geochronology: Uranium-series Dating of Ocean Formations
Radiocarbon: Clock and Tracer
GLACIAL-MARINE SEDIMENTATION
Alexander P. Lisitzin and Vladimir P. Shevchenko
P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy
of Sciences (IO RAS), Moscow, Russia
Definition
Glacial-marine sedimentation is the process of sediment
deposition in the sea after release from ice shelves, tidewater ice fronts, icebergs, or sea ice.
Introduction
Glacial type of sedimentation dominates in polar and subpolar parts of the World Ocean and continues the regions
of glacial sedimentation both on the land (in region land
ice sheets, mountain glaciation, and other types of inland
ice) and in seas and oceans (Lisitzin, 1972, 2002, 2010).
Water catchments are changed here by ice catchments
and annually are replenished by new portions of snow.
In this kingdom of snow, ice and cold minimal values of
winter temperatures reach À71
C in the Northern Hemisphere and À89
C in the Southern Hemisphere. It influences on the development of life in the ocean and on the
land and residual soils at the stage of preparation of sedimentary matter on the land. It determines at a large extent
both quantity, composition, and properties of marine bottom sediments and suspended particulate matter in water
column.
Glacial-marine dynamics and associated sedimentary
processes are closely tied to glacial regime and reflect
dominant climate conditions (Trusel et al., 2010).
Glacial-marine processes such as sediment flux and yield,
terminus fluctuations, calving rates, freshwater flux, and
mass balance are useful for comparison among differing
glacial and climatic regimes. Understanding the relationship of complex modern processes to those found in
glacial-marine sediment record can enhance interpretation
of past glacial-marine processes and changes in biological
productivity (Powell, 1984; Trusel et al., 2010).
According to the composition and genesis of ice and
sedimentary material, glacial type of sedimentation could
be divided into two subtypes:
1. Sedimentation from glacier ice, including iceberg sedimentation (defined by land glaciers reaching the sea)
2. Sea-ice sedimentation (defined by sea ice)
Sedimentation from glacier ice
Icebergs are released where glaciers, ice sheets, and ice
shelves terminate in the ocean (Warren, 1992). Often icebergs released in fjords (Mugford and Dowdeswell,
2010). The dominant sedimentary process in most fjords
is sedimentation from the brackish plumes rich in
suspended particulate matter that emerges from either
glacier-fed river mouths or tidewater cliff. Modern
glacial-marine environments are widely spread in the Antarctic, Alaska, Greenland, Baffin Island, British Columbia, Svalbard, Norway, Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya
Zemlya (Drewry and Cooper, 1981; Elverhøi et al.,
1983; Molnia, 1983; Cowan and Powell, 1991; Syvitski
et al., 1996; Gilbert et al., 2003; Kehrl et al., 2011;
Politova et al., 2012; Szczucinski and Zajaczkowski,
2012; Chewings et al., 2014; Miller et al., 2015).
The vertical sediment fluxes in these areas are relatively
high. For example, maximum sediment flux from temperate glaciers in southeastern Alaska was measured in
McBride Inlet; in average it was 53 kg m
À2 day
À1
(Cowan and Powell, 1991). In Kongsfjorden, Svalbard,
near Kronebreen, glacier sediment flux reached
288
GLACIAL-MARINE SEDIMENTATION